Siege of Fort Zeelandia

Siege of Fort Zeelandia (1661-1662)
Fort Zealandia, 17th century.
Date March 30, 1661 - February 1, 1662 Location Tainan, Taiwan Result Decisive Ming Loyalist victory Establishment of Kingdom of Tungning
Belligerents
Koxinga's Ming Loyalist army Koxinga's Ming Loyalist fleet	Dutch East India Company
Commanders and leaders
Koxinga	Frederick Coyett
Strength
25,000 soldiers and sailors Hundreds of war vessels.	Garrison: 1,200 unknown number of native allies and civilians Reinforcement: 10 ships, 700 sailors
Casualties and losses
unknown (about 1,000 killed or wounded in a failed frontal assult in September 1660 according to Dutch records)	1,600 killed or diseased 2 ships sunk 3 vessels captured

The Siege of Fort Zeelandia (Chinese: 鄭成功攻台之役; literally "Koxinga's Invasion of Taiwan"), which took place in 1661 and 1662, ended the Dutch East India Company's rule over Taiwan and began the Kingdom of Tungning's rule over the island. Taiwanese scholar Lu Chien-jung described this event as "a war that determined the fate of Taiwan in the four hundred years that follow".

Prelude

Painting of Fort Zeelandia in 1635, from The National Archives, The Hague, Netherlands

In the year of 1659, after an unsuccessful attempt to capture Nanjing, Koxinga, leader of the Ming loyalist remnants, felt that the Qing Empire had already consolidated their position in China, and that his troops needed more supplies and manpower. He began actively searching for a suitable location as his base of operation, and soon a Chinese man named He Bin (Traditional Chinese: 何斌), who was working for the Dutch East India Company in Formosa (Taiwan), fled to Koxinga's base in Xiamen and provided him with a map of Taiwan.

By 1632, the Dutch had established a post on a peninsula named Tayoan (Traditional Chinese: 大員, now Anping District of Tainan City), which was separated from the main part of Formosa by a shallow lagoon historically referred to as the Bay of Taijiang (台江內海; now disappered). The Dutch fortification consisted of two forts around the bay. The first was the multiple-walled Fort Zeelandia situated at the entrance to the bay; this was the main fortification of the Dutch. The second was Fort Provintia, a walled administrative office located at the bay, which was smaller in size. Frederick Coyett, the governor of Taiwan for the company, was stationed in Fort Zeelandia with 1,800 men; his subordinate Valentyn was in charge of Fort Provintia and its garrison of 500 men.

The Dutch had mistreated and abused Chinese settlers in Taiwan, levying high taxes. This led to the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in which the Dutch massacred Chinese. The Dutch had attacked the Chinese population in Taiwan, paying Aboriginals into killing Chinese and repatriating slaves of Quinam or Pampang origina back to the Dutch. Quinam were from Vietnam and Pampang from Indonesia.

That Koxinga had held secret correspondence with the Formosan Chinese the Dutch were well aware of, and consequently they strengthened the garrison of Fort Zelandia and increased their vigilance over the Chinese population. New arrivals from the mainland were closely inspected and on the least suspicion, the unfortunate emigrant was thrown into prison and cruelly tortured in hopes of gaining information as to Koxinga's plans. Previous to this, in 1657, the Dutch had been somewhat alarmed as to Koxinga's intentions, and messengers had been sent to Amoy to deliver to the young chief several valuable presents and to inquire if he had warlike designs against the company. The messenger was kindly treated and returned to Formosa with the assurance that there was no truth in the rumor. To quiet the fears of the company Koxinga endeavored to strengthen the commercial ties between himself and them. In 1658-9, junks to a number never before seen ;n the port of Taiwan arrived from Amoy, and exports rose to a height never before equalled.

The Dutch governor Coyett said that Chinese were "little better than poor specimens of very effeminate men", when he believed that there was no plan to invade Taiwan. The Dutch then changed their tune to "Formosa is lost." once the invasion was underway.

The Siege

Peace Treaty of 1662, between Dutch Governor and Koxinga.

The surrender of Fort Zeelandia

Koxinga's forces

A consultation was immediately held, and it was agreed to send deputies to Koxinga, offering to surrender Fort Province rather than to lose all. They went to his camp, then consisting of about 12,000 men, who were besieging Fort Province. They were armed with three different sorts of weapons; the first, of bows and arrows; the second, of scimitars and targets only; and the third, of backswords and pikes, three or four feet long, with broad pointed irons at the ends.

The Eastern seas: the voyage of H.M.S. 'Dwarf' in China, Japan, and Formosa by Bonham Ward Bax in 1875

Koxinga and his fleet set sail from Kinmen on March 23, 1661. His fleet consisted of hundreds of junks and ships of various sizes, with roughly 25,000 soldiers and sailors aboard. They arrived in the Pescadores the next day, left a garrison there, and set sail again on March 30. The fleet arrived at Tayoan on April 2, and, after passing through a shallow waterway unknown to the Dutch, landed at Luermen (Chinese: 鹿耳門) in the bay.

Koxinga was abundantly provided with cannons and ammunition in addition to two companies of former Dutch slaves of African descent who had learned to use small arms. They caused much harm to the Dutch during the war. Koxinga's army was well disciplined and armed, some with bows and arrows, some with swords and shields, and some with large two-handed swords. Koxinga's soldiers wore iron scale armor, affording substantial protection from the firearms in use during the time. Lacking cavalry, Koxinga used shield bearers. His shield bearers smashed into the enemy ranks and swordsmen followed, with fearful massacre amongst the fugitives.

"Koxinga's soldiers were armed with several different kinds of weapons, but the greatest dependence was put on the cross-bows, the arrows for which were carried on the backs of the men; other corps were armed with cimiters and targets, two-handed swords three to four feet long, and pikes with iron pointed heads. The army also included two companies of blacks provided ^ with muskets, in the use of which they were very proficient. Koxinga possessed no cavalry, but supplied their want to a certain extent with fleet runners who were protected by shields besides light armor. So swift and courageous were these warriors that it is said they dared charge even into the very arms of the enemy regardless of their number, and their fierce attacks gained them the cognomen of " mad dogs" from the Dutch."

Fort Provintia

Koxinga's position now being secure, he sent messengers to the two Dutch forts, summoning the garrisons to surrender, threatening to put all to fire and sword if they refused, adding: "This island was the dominion of my fatherand should descend to none other than myself. Foreigners must go."

The island of Formosa, past and present: History, people, resources, and commercial prospects. Tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions by James Wheeler Davidson, 1903

The assault force immediately laid siege to Fort Provintia, catching Valentyn unprepared since the fort was supposedly protected by Fort Zeelandia; facing overwhelming enemy forces, Valentyn surrendered the fort on April 4.

Only four Dutch ships were in the harbor at the time and the direction of the wind was Such that they could not leave their anchorage to battle with Koxinga. Meanwhile, in two hours' time, several thousands of Chinese had been landed. Numerous junks cleared for action were at once stationed between Fort Zelandia and Fort Provintia which stood on opposite sides of the liarbor, while Koxinga with a large force occupied a position which would enable him to cut off land communication between the two forts. Captain Pedel, the commander of the Dutch naval force, decided that as he was unable to oppose the invaders by sea, his men would be profitably employed on shore, and accordingly marched with 240 men in hopes of dislodging the enemy, and preventing the further landing of men. Then occurred the first engagement. By the time the Dutch troops came up 4,000 Chinese had already occupied the place; but confident that the enemy would not stand fire, the Dutch immediately attacked them. Instead of giving way, the Chinese returned the fire with musketry and arrows, and the Dutch, finding they were also being attacked on the flank, threw down their arms and fled, leaving the captain and 118 men dead on the field. One half only of their company reached the fort alive. A second party of 200 men under the command of Captain Aeldorp likewise advanced against the enemy, but returned without accomplishing any good or suffering much loss.At the time the European settlers numbered about 600 and the garrison about 2,200 men. The Dutch do not appear to have made the most of the force at their disposal. Equally ineffective seemed the four Dutch ships, for although they did make an attack on the Chinese junks and destroy several, one of their own squadron was burnt by Chinese fire boats and the rest escaped from the harbor, two to return, while the third sailed for Batavia, not reaching her destination until after some fifty days owing to the south monsoon. No further opposition was for the time encountered. The remainder of Koxinga's men were safely landed and in a few hours had cut off all communication between the forts and the open country. The Chinese were now securely placed, and earthworks had been erected overlooking the plain. Koxinga's position now being secure, he sent messengers to the two •Dutch forts, summoning the garrisons to surrender, threatening to put all to fire and sword if they refused, adding: "This island was the dominion of my fatherand should descend to none other than myself. Foreigners must go."

After a consultation it was agreed to send deputies to Koxinga, offering to surrender Fort Provintia, thus permitting the Dutch to concentrate their forces at Zelandia. These deputies went to his camp, dien consisting of about 12,000 men, who were besieging Fort Provintia.

The Dutchmen were conducted into a spacious tent where they awaited the leisure of Koxinga, who at the time was employed in combing his long black shining hair of which he was very proud. "This done, they were introduced into his tent, all hung with blue; he himself was seated in an elbow chair behind a four square table; round about h' n attended all the chief commanders, clad in long robes, without arms, and in great silence with most awful countenances."

Koxinga listened quietly to their offer, but in answer replied that Formosa had always belonged to China, and now that the Chinese wanted it the foreigners must quit the island immediately. If this was not acceptable let them hoist the red flag. Next morning Fort Provintia surrendered with all its garrison and arms and the red flag of defiance waved over Fort Zelandia.

^- To better defend themselves against the enemy all the men capable of bearing arms were assembled at the remaining fort, and the city was set on fire.

The intention was to deprive the Chinese of shelter in the vicinity of the fort, but although the fire was partially effectual, the Chinese were still able to preserve many of the buildings. Koxinga then ordered his artillery to advance and with twenty-eight cannon to storm the fort; but so strong was the fire from the Dutch that the streets were filled with the slain, and the besieged, making a successful charge, were able to spike the -enemies' guns.

Koxinga seeing that his attack on the formidable Zelandia would not succeed in driving out the Dutch, instituted a close blockade, knowing that hunger and want must come at last.

Still annoyed at the obstinacy of his foes he vented his rage on the open country, inflicting much suffering upon such foreigners and their sympathizers as he could lay his hands on. It was useless for the Dutch to strengthen their position, as this led to the blockade being made more effective, while the foreigners scattered through the country were subject to greater suffering and even death.

The ministers, school-masters, and prisoners were especially singled out for punishment, it having been proclaimed that they had been secretly encouraging the native Christians to rise and kill the Chinese living among them. Some were crucified by the Chinese on the crosses erected in the very villages where they had been pursuing their gracious work, while all were subjected to great indignities.

The following extracts transk ted from the day-journal of Fort Zelandia tell the pathetic tale in their own words. Translation as appearing in Missionary Success in Formosa, Kev. William Campbell. The reader will find many interesting translations regarding the siego in the first volume of this valuable work, of which a portion of the remainder of this chapter is an extract. :

Tuesday, 17th May, 1661.—Several inhabitants, as well as their elders, dwelling in the mount ains and plains, yea, more or less all the people of the south, have surrendered to Koxinga; each of the elders having received as gifts a light-colored silk robe, a cap surmounted with a gilt knob, and a pair of Chinese boots. These fellows now speak with much disdain of the true Christian faith, which we have endeavored to plant in their hearts, and are delighted that they have been exempted from attending the schools. Everywhere they have destroyed the books and utenti Is, and have again introduced the abominable usages end customs of heathenism. On the report being spread that Koxinga had arrived, they murdered one of our Dutch people; and, after having struck off the head, they danced around it with great ioy and merriment, just as they formerly did with their vanquished enemies. All this a certain Stephen Yansz had himself been witness of in the south."

First Engagement

The following was a descruption of the first battle before Fort Provintia (Fort Province) was captured :

"Widely different from these conjectures were the events then passing at the island. No sooner had the Dutch fleet departed, than Koxinga and his forces were in motion. He embarked 20,000 or 25,000 of his best troops in a great number of vessels, and appeared before Fort Zealand, and, assisted by thousands of his countrymen on shore, began to land. He first stationed a number of his vessels between Fort Zealand and Fort Province, on the opposite side of the entrance, and occupied "with his forces a point which would cut off the communication between the forts."

"The governor seeing this, ordered out 240 men to dislodge the enemy from this post. Here was the first trial of their strength. By the time of their coming up, 4,000 Chinese had already occupied the place; but so confident Avere the Dutch that the enemy would not stand the fire, that they immediately attacked them. "But so far were the Chinese from giving ground, that they returned the fire with musketry and arrows, and sent a detachment to attack us in the flanks. This alarmed the soldiers, who threw down their arms and fled, leaving the captain and nineteen men to the mercy of the enemy. One half only of their company reached the fort alive. Nor was the defence by sea any better. The four ships in port attacked the junks, and sunk a few; but one of the four was burned by the Chinese fireships, and the rest escaped from the harbour, to which they all returned again but one, which sailed away for Batavia." By passing around the Philippines, she reached Batavia in fifty-three days; the first instance of a passage down against the monsoon. The Chinese landed without any further opposition, and in four hours' time cut off all communication between the forts, and also between Fort Zealand and the open country. Koxinga now summoned the fort, threatening to put all to fire and sword, if they did not surrender immediately."

A consultation was immediately held, and it was agreed to send deputies to Koxinga, offering to surrender Fort Province rather than to lose all. They went to his camp, then consisting of about 12,000 men, who were besieging Fort Province. They were armed with three different sorts of weapons; the first, of bows and arrows; the second, of scimitars and targets only; and the third, of backswords and pikes, three or four feet long, with broad pointed irons at the ends. The deputies were conducted into a spacious tent, where they waited till Koxinga was at leisure. He meanwhile was employed in combing his long shining black hair, a great ornament among the Chinese. "This done, they were introduced into his tent, all hung with blue; he himself was seated in an elbow chair, behind a four-square table; round about him attended all the chief commanders, clad in long robes, without arms, and in great silence, with a most awful countenance." Koxinga replied, that Formosa had always belonged to China, and now the Chinese wanted it, the foreigners must quit the island immediately. If not, let them only hoist the red flag. Next morning the red flag waved over Fort Zealand, but Fort Province was surrendered with all its garrison and cannon.

Description of Negotiations

The Dutch tried to negotiate for their continued precense on Taiwan in exchange for several concessions on their part. Zheng rejected the Dutch claim that they had been friendly out of good will, saying it was only because the Dutch needed it for selfish purposes, their own interests

A description of the surrender of Fort Provincia (Fort Province) is as follows:

'We therefore request a distinct answer so that we may report the same to the Lord-governor.'

To these requests Koxinga, without concerning himself much about the envoys'credentials, immediately replied that the friendship which the Company held towards him was of the same nature as that held towards other Indian Potentates and Princes: namely, that from their side, it lasted just so long as there was any advantage to be gained by it; for if they saw it to be to their advantage, no such friendship was observed, but they would not scruple in the least to thro.v a net over any one's head when it suited them to do so.

He added that he was not at all obliged to give an account of his actions, but saw no need for concealing from them the fact that, in order to a successful prosecution of his war with the Tartars, he had thought it advisable to take possession of Formosa.

Hitherto this island had always belonged to China, and the Dutch had doubtless been permitted to live there, seeing that the Chinese did not require it for themselves; but requiring it now, it was only fair that Dutch strangers, who came from far regions, should give way to the masters of the island.

He came not with a view to wage war against the Company (although his men had on several occasions been very unkindly treated by them), but only to take possession of his belongings; and, to prove that he had no intention to enrich himself with the Company's means, he would allow them to embark their goods and effects in his own junks, and to break down the Castles and remove the cannon with other materials to Batavia; provided all this were done immediately. In that case, the friendship between him and the Company would remain undisturbed, though they had already given great offence by attacking his junks and soldiers at sea and on land with their ships and men.

Surely he had been quite right in defending himself against them; but, inclined to be friendly with the Company, he would overlook these hostile actions if they would clear out from Formosa in the way indicated; which in reality belonged to him, and not to the Company. However, if they ignored his magnanimity, declined to restore to him his own property, and wished to keep that still longer from him, he would be compelled to urge his claims to the utmost with such resources as he possessed, and the Company would then have to defrav the entire expense.

He added further :—' You Hollanders are conceited and senseless people; you will make yourselves unworthy of the mercy which I now offer; you will subject yourselves to the highest punishment by proudly opposing the great force I have brought with the mere handful of men which I am told you have in your Castle; you will obstinately persevere in this. Do you not wish to be wiser? Let your losses at least teach you, that your power here cannot be compared to a thousandth part of mine.

'You have by this time surely seen with your own eyes what your iron ships, with which you think you can accomplish wonders and on which you boast so much, can do against my junks; how one of them has been burned by one of my junks and has disappeared in smoke; how the others would have met with the same doom had they not taken to flight and gone out to sea.

'On land you saw how the pride of Captain Pedel was so much humbled that he with his men, who are as foolish as himself, could not even bear the look of my men ; and how, on the mere sight of my warriors, they threw down their arms and willingly awaited their well-deserved punishment with outstretched necks. Are these not sufficient proofs of your incompetency and inability to resist my forces?

'I will give you more and stronger ones. But if you still persist in refusing to listen to reason and decline to do my bidding, and if you wish deliberately to rush to your ruin, then I will shortly, in your presence, order your Castle to be stormed. (Here he pointed with one hand towards Fort Provintia.) My smart boys will attack it, conquer it, and demolish it in such a way, that not one stone will remain standing. If I wish to set my forces to work, then I am able to move Heaven and Earth; wherever I go, I am destined to win. Therefore take warning, and think the matter well over.'

The envoys then remonstrated that Formosa did not belong to China, but to the Company; for by a formal contract drawn up with the grandees of China, they had left the Pescadores and taken possession of Formosa; therefore Koxinga could have no right or pretence of claim to it. They further protested very strongly against the improper manner of his invasion; insisted that he should specify any grounds of complaint he had against the Company; and expressed the desire to come to a mutual arrangement that might prove satisfactory to both parties. But after much discussion, Koxinga pretended not to understand; and declared his fixed intention to be that we should abandon the whole island, thus rendering it quite needless to carry on further negotiations.

He gave them till eight o'clock next morning to consider whether they would promptly leave the entire island and gratefully accept this mercy, or prefer to go into war and resist him. If we decided to leave Formosa, the Prince's flag should be hoisted; but, if the contrary, we had simply to unfurl the blood-flag, without troubling him with further deliberations, which he would refuse to enter upon.

Hereupon, the conference ended, and the envoys were permitted to leave; but, according to instructions, they strongly protested at this stage, and said that the Company would use every means to protect itself against so great an injustice. Because, seeing that Koxinga would be satisfied with nothing else than the whole island, the envoys were pretty sure that, on delivering such a message to-morrow, no Prince's flag, but the blood-flag, would float from Castle Zeelandia. In fact, this prolonged discussion was quite unnecessary, for they were well aware that the Governor would await any attack like a soldier. There was no lack of men or other necessities, as would shortly be proved, if circumstances demanded that they should be brought forward.

The envoys then departed and were taken to a high hill, from which the whole army could be seen. However, before time was given to take careful note, a cannon was fired, and they all dispersed far and wide. The soldiers concealed themselves behind little hills, so that it was impossible in the short time available to estimate their numbers. Yet these companies and their dispersing gave the appearance of a formidable army.

Fort Zeelandia

Three days after the capture of Fort Provintia, Koxinga's troop surrounded Fort Zeelandia and demanded the garrison's surrender by sending Dutch priest Antonius Hambroek, who had been captured by Koxinga's forces, as emissary to persuade the garrison to surrender. Hambroek, however, urged the garrison to resist instead of surrender, and was executed after returning to Koxinga's camp. Koxinga ordered his artillery to advance and used 28 cannon to bombard the fort. Koxinga's fleet then began massive bombardment, and troops on the ground attempted to storm the fort, but were repulsed with considerable losses. Koxinga then changed his tactics and laid siege to the fort. On May 28, news of the siege reached Jakarta, and the company decided to send a fleet of 10 ships and 700 sailors to relieve the fort. The fleet arrived on July 5 and had some small scale confrontations with Koxinga's fleet upon its arrival.

On July 23, the two sides gave battle as the Dutch fleet attempted to break the blockade while Koxinga's fleet tried to hold off the Dutch. After a brief engagement, the Dutch fleet was forced to retreat with two ships sunk, three smaller vessels captured, and 130 casualties. The Dutch attempted to break the siege again in October, but were beaten back by the besieging army. This victory, coupled with news of low morale among the garrison from deserted German mercenaries, convinced Koxinga to launch a final assault in December.

January 1662, Koxinga's cannons bombarded the Dutch redoubt with cannon. When Koxinga's cannon began firing, the Dutch prayed: "We trust that our kindhearted God, who is almighty, will protect us from the terrible violence of our enemies, and we are begging him to do so fervently and with our entire hearts." The redoubt fell a day later.

On January 12, 1662, Koxinga's fleet began another bombardment, while the ground force prepare to assault the fort. With supplies dwindling and no sign of reinforcement, Coyett finally ordered the hoisting of the white flag and negotiated the surrender terms. The surrender was made complete on February 1, and the remaining Dutch East India Company personnel left Taiwan on February 17. All personnel were allowed to take with them their personal belongings, as well as provisions sufficient for them to reach the nearest Dutch settlement.

Mass execution of Dutch Prisoners and Enslavement of Dutch women

Antonius Hambroek, two of his daughters, and his wife were among the Dutch prisoners of war with Koxinga. Koxinga sent Hambroek to Fort Zeelandia demanding he persuade them to surrender or else Hambroek would be killed when he returned. Hambroek returned to the Fort, where two of his other daughters were. He urged the Fort not to surrender, and returned to Koxinga's camp. He was then executed by decapitation, and in addition to this, a rumor was spreading among the Chinese that the Dutch were encouraging the native Taiwan aboriginals to kill Chinese, so Koxinga ordered the mass execution Dutch male prisoners in retaliation, in addition to a few women and children also being killed. The surviving Dutch women and children were then turned into slaves. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine, and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives, the daily journal of the Dutch fort recorded that "the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and then sold to the common soldiers. Happy was she that fell to the lot of an unmarried man, being thereby freed from vexations by the Chinese women, who are very jealous of their husbands." In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.

"The daughter of the Rev. A. Hambroek, a very sweet and pleasing maiden, Koxinga took to be one of his concubines, and she had, consequently, been placed in his harem. All the remaining Dutch women were kept under guard in Castle Provintia."

"Koxinga received his (Hambroek's) answer sternly ; then causing it to be rumored about that the prisoners excited the Formosaus (Aborigines) to rebel against him, he ordered all the Dutch male prisoners to be slain; this was accordingly done, some being beheaded, others killed in a more barbarous manner, to the number of 500, their bodies stripped quite naked and buried 50 and (50 in a hole; nor were the women and children spared, many of them likewise being slain, though some of the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and then sold to the common soldiers. Happy was she that fell to the lot of an unmarried man, being thereby freed from vexations by the Chinese women, who are very jealous of their husbands. Among the slain were Messrs. Hauibroek, Mus, and Winshem, clergymen, and many schoolmasters, who were all beheaded."

"Koxinga received his answer sternly: then causing it to be rumoured that the prisoners excited the Foimosans to rebel against him, ordered all the Dutch prisoners to be killed; this was accordingly done, some being beheaded, others killed in a more barbarous manner, to the number of 500, their bodies stripped quite naked, and buried fifty and sixty in a hole; nor were the women and children spared, many of them likewise being slain, though some of the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and the rest sold to the common soldiers. Happy was she that fell to the lot of an unmarried man, being thereby freed from vexations by the Chinese women, who are very jealous of their husbands. Among the slain were Messrs. Hambrocock, Mus, and Wenshain, clergymen, and many schoolmasters, who were all beheaded."

"His wife and two children were detained as hostages; and he had no hope but that death would be his portion, if he failed in his uegociations. Yet instead of urging surrender, this noble man cheered the garrison on to make a gallant defence, by hopes of relief, assuring them that Koxinga had lost many of his best ships, and soldiers, and began to weary of the siege. Two of his daughters who were within the fort, flung themselves upon him, and implored him to remain ; their entreaties were seconded by the council of war, but with unselfish devotion he roplied that, unless he returned, his wife and children would perish, and that, he hoped to be of service to his poor fellow prisoners. So saying he left with the Governor's refusal to surrender. Koxinga listened sternly to the answer, and then ordered all the Dutch male prisoners, to the number of five hundred, to be put to death. This was done, many of the women and children were also slain, though it is stated, "some of the best, were preserved for the use of the commanders, and tho rest sold to the common soldiers." Messrs Hambrocock Mus, and Winshaim, clergymen, and several sohoolmasters, perished in this massacre."

Contemporary records unite in singling out the case of Rev. Antonius Hambroek, who was sent by Koxinga into the castle, under a flag of truce, to propose terms of surrender, and told to back these up with threats of most terrible vengeance. Mr. Hambroek was forced to leave his wife and two children (one of them described as a sweet and comely maiden of eighteen) in the invader's camp as pledges, which sufficiently proved that any failure of his undertaking would be a most ominous signal for those poor defenceless ones...Koxinga received his answer sternly, and without further delay issued an order for the massacre of all Dutch captives, and of every native who persisted in the profession of Christianity; Hambroek himself was put to death by decapitation, and the before-mentioned daughter compelled to become a member of his murderer's harem.

"But nothing more is needed to settle the question under discussion than a reference to what took place between this chieftain and the Rev. Mr. Hambroek. The latter was sent into Castle Zeelandia to advise his countrymen against a continuance of the struggle, but he rather exhorted them to hold on, and then took his life in his hand with the message to Koxinga that the besieged would on no account allow the subject of surrender to be mentioned, although they were quite prepared to make every honourable attempt to meet the wishes of His Highness; which reply so enraged Koxinga that he soon after ordered Hambroek to be beheaded. Meanwhile the daughter of this brave Christian martyr, who is described as having been a very sweet and pleasing maiden, was chosen by Koxinga himself and made a member of his harem."

"Many of these wretched people, including the dauntless Hambroek and some of the women and children, were beheaded. Some, more unhappy still, were crucified. One of Mr. Hambroek 's daughters Koxinga took into his own harem, while the remainder of the women were divided amongst his officers."

Aftermath

Statues of Koxinga and Dutch emissary at Chihkan Tower, the site where Fort Provintia once stood.

After arriving in Jakarta, Coyett was imprisoned for three years and tried for high treason, surrendering the post and the loss of valuable goods. He was pardoned and exiled to the most eastern of the Banda Islands. He was eventually released in 1674 after strong lobbying by his friends and relatives. He published a book named Neglected Formosa (Dutch: 't Verwaerloosde Formosa) in 1675. In the book he defended his actions in Taiwan and criticized the company for neglecting his pleas for reinforcement.

After the loss of the post at Tayoan, the Dutch East India Company made several attempts to recapture it, and even formed an alliance with the Qing Empire to battle Koxinga's fleet. They captured Keelung in northern Taiwan, but were forced to abandon it due to logistical difficulties and because the Qing fleet suffered numerous crushing defeats at the hands of Koxinga's veteran sailors.

Taiwan was used as a base by the Ming loyalists for reconquering mainland China, which they were successful up to 1676 when they took back massive areas of mainland China. The Qing dynasty later conquered Taiwan. Koxinga is still revered for expelling the Dutch from Taiwan. In 1683, Formosa became a dependency of the Fu-kien province.

Koxinga's army also brought the Qinxi fraternal brotherhood into Taiwan, of which some of his army were members of the organization. In the present day, the Qinxi currently exists in Taiwan. The Hongmen are associated with them.

The conquest of Taiwan caused panic and anxiety among European colonial powers in Southeast Asia.

The cutlass of Koxinga, the pirate king who conquered Formosa, was sold by one of his descendants in 1879 and brought $1,500.

Cultural influences

The battle was depicted in the movie The Sino-Dutch War 1661 (Traditional Chinese: 鄭成功1661), which ended in Koxinga's victory over the Dutch.

See also

• Koxinga
• Dutch East India Company
• Kingdom of Tungning

References

•  This article incorporates text from Formosa under the Dutch: described from contemporary records, with explanatory notes and a bibliography of the island, by William Campbell, a publication from 1903 now in the public domain in the United States.
•  This article incorporates text from The island of Formosa, past and present: History, people, resources, and commercial prospects. Tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions, by James Wheeler Davidson, a publication from 1903 now in the public domain in the United States.
•  This article incorporates text from The island of Formosa: historical view from 1430 to 1900, by James Wheeler Davidson, a publication from 1903 now in the public domain in the United States.