Romano-Chinese relations

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The Roman Empire and the Chinese Han dynasty occupied the opposite ends of Eurasia.

Romano-Chinese relations were essentially indirect throughout the existence of both empires. The Roman Empire and Han China progressively inched closer in the course of the Roman expansion into the Ancient Near East and simultaneous Chinese military incursions into Central Asia. However, powerful intermediate empires such as the Parthians and Kushans kept the two Eurasian flanking powers permanently apart and mutual awareness remained low and knowledge fuzzy.

Contents

[edit] History

Departure of the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian toward western Eurasia in the 2nd century BCE

China is thought to have initiated formal contact with the "Western Regions" in the 2nd century BCE, with the embassy of Zhang Qian.

The Roman historian Florus describes the visit of numerous envoys, including Seres (Chinese, or, more probably Central Asians), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and 14:

"Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours."[1]

In 97 CE, the Chinese general Ban Chao unsuccessfully tried to send an envoy to Rome.[2][3] Several alleged Roman emissaries to China were recorded by ancient Chinese historians. The first one on record, supposedly from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or the later emperor Marcus Aurelius, arrived in 166.[4][5] The Hou Hanshu records the arrival of Roman envoys, by sea to Chinese territory in what is now North Vietnam in 166 CE, presumably from either the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius or the later emperor Marcus Aurelius. The text specifically states that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.[6]

The trade relations between Rome and the East, including China, were described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the 1st century CE

The indirect exchange of goods on the land (the so-called Silk Road) and sea routes included Chinese silk, Roman glassware, high-quality cloth, spices, perfumes, gems, etc.[7]

The Liangshu records the arrival in 226 CE of a merchant from the Roman Empire (Da Qin) at Jiaozhi (near modern Hanoi). The Prefect of Jiaozhi sent him to Sun Quan [the Wu (kingdom) emperor], who asked him for a report on his native country and its people. An expedition was mounted to return the merchant to along with 10 female and 10 male "blackish coloured dwarfs" he had requested as a curiosity and a Chinese officer who, unfortunately, died enroute.[8]

In classical sources, the problem of identifying references to ancient China is exacerbated by the interpretation of the Latin term "Seres" whose meaning fluctuated and could refer to a number of Asian people in a wide arc from India over Central Asia to China.[9] In Chinese records, the Roman Empire came to be known as "Da Qin", Great Qin, apparently thought to be a sort of counter-China at the other end of the world.[10] According to Pulleyblank, the "point that needs to be stressed is that the Chinese conception of Da Qin was confused from the outset with ancient mythological notions about the far west".[11]

[edit] Trade relations

[edit] Asian silk in the Roman Empire

Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Museum.

Trade with the Roman Empire, confirmed by the Roman craze for silk, started in the 1st century BCE. Although the Romans knew of wild silk harvested on Cos, they did not at first make the connection with silk which was also produced in the Pamir Sarikol kingdom.[12] There were few direct trade contacts between Romans and Han Chinese, as the rivalling Parthians and Kushans were each jealously protecting their lucrative role as trade intermediaries.[13][14]

Much of what we know from the Roman side of the silk trade, and silk in general, comes from Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History:

The Seres, are famous for the woolen substance obtained from their forests; after a soaking in water they comb off the white down of the leaves… So manifold is the labour employed, and so distant is the region of the globe drawn upon, to enable the Roman maiden to flaunt transparent clothing in public.
—Pliny the Elder, The Natural History VI, 54

Pliny the Elder wrote about the large value of the trade between Rome and Eastern countries:[15]:

"By the lowest reckoning, India, Seres and the Arabian peninsula take from our Empire 100 millions of sesterces every year: that is how much our luxuries and women cost us."
—Pliny the Elder, Natural History 12.84.[16]

Yet, later in the same work, he writes:

The larva [of the 'bombyx'] then becomes a caterpillar, after which it assumes the state in which it is known as 'bombylis', then that called 'necydalus', and after that, in six months, it becomes a silk-worm. These insects weave webs similar to those of the spider, the material of which is used for making the more costly and luxurious garments of females, known as 'bombycina'. Pamphile, a woman of Cos, the daughter of Platea, was the first person who discovered the art of unravelling these webs and spinning a tissue therefrom; indeed, she ought not to be deprived of the glory of having discovered the art of making vestments which, while they cover a woman, at the same moment reveal her naked charms.
—Pliny the Elder, The Natural History XI, 26
Woven silk textiles from Tomb No. 1 at Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province, China, 2nd century BCE, Han Dynasty

The Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the importation of silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral:

I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes ... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.
—Seneca the Younger c. 3 BCE–CE 65, Declamations Vol. I

The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, including Seres and "Indians" (who may have included Kushans), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and CE 14:

Now that all the races of the west and south were subjugated, and also the races of the north, (...) the Scythians and the Sarmatians sent ambassadors seeking friendship; the Seres too and the Indians, who live immediately beneath the sun, though they brought elephants amongst their gifts as well as precious stones and pearls, regarded their long journey, in the accomplishment of which they had spent four years, as the greatest tribute which they rendered, and indeed their complexion proved that they came from beneath another sky.
—Florus, Epitomae II, 34
Roman glass from the 2nd century AD

A maritime route opened up with the Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (centred in modern Vietnam) and the Khmer kingdom of Funan by the 2nd century CE, if not earlier.[17] At the formerly coastal site of Óc Eo in the Mekong Delta, Roman coins were among the vestiges of long-distance trade discovered by the French archaeologist Louis Malleret in the 1940s.[18] Óc Eo may have been the port known to the geographer Ptolemy and the Romans as Kattigara or Cattigara, though most modern scholars place it at Jiaozhi, near modern Hanoi.[19][20] The trade connection extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea.

[edit] Roman exports to China

High-quality glass from Roman manufactures in Alexandria and Syria were exported to many parts of Asia, including Han China. Further Roman luxury items which were greatly esteemed by the Chinese were gold-embroidered rugs and gold-coloured cloth, asbestos cloth and sea silk, a cloth made from the silk-like hairs of certain Mediterranean shell-fish, the Pinna nobilis.[21][22]

[edit] Embassies and travels

[edit] Envoy Gan Ying

The Chinese impression of the Daqin people, from the Ming Dynasty encyclopedia Sancai Tuhui

In 97 CE, a Chinese envoy named Gan Ying, sent by the general Ban Chao, made his way from the Tarim Basin to Parthia and reached the Persian Gulf. Gan Ying left a detailed account of western countries, although he apparently only reached as far as Mesopotamia, then under the control of the Parthian Empire. While he intended to sail to the Roman Empire, he was discouraged when told that the dangerous trip could take up to two years. Deterred, he returned home to China bringing much new information on the countries to the west of Chinese-controlled territories.[23]

Gan Ying left an account on the Roman Empire (Daqin in Chinese) which relied on secondary sources - likely sailors in the ports which he visited. It is, apparently, this report from Gan Ying which formed the basis for the account of Da Qin in the Hou Hanshu, which locates it in Haixi (lit. "west of the sea" = Egypt, which was then under Roman control. The sea is the one known to the Greeks and Romans as the Erythraean Sea which included the Persian Gulf together with the Arabian Sea and Red Sea):

"Its territory extends for several thousands of li [a li during the Han equaled 415.8 metres],[24] They have established postal relays at intervals, which are all plastered and whitewashed. There are pines and cypresses, as well as trees and plants of all kinds. It has more than four hundred walled towns. There are several tens of smaller dependent kingdoms. The walls of the towns are made of stone."[25]

He also gives a positive view of Roman governance:

Their kings are not permanent. They select and appoint the most worthy man. If there are unexpected calamities in the kingdom, such as frequent extraordinary winds or rains, he is unceremoniously rejected and replaced. The one who has been dismissed quietly accepts his demotion, and is not angry. The people of this country are all tall and honest. They resemble the Chinese, and that is why the country is called Da Qin (The "Great" Qin) ... The soil produced lots of gold, silver and rare jewels, including the jewel which shines at night ... they sew embroidered tissues with gold threads to form tapestries and damask of many colours, and make a gold-painted cloth, and a "cloth washed-in-the-fire" (asbestos).
—Hou Hanshu, cited in Leslie and Gardiner

Finally Gan Ying described Rome correctly as the main economic power at the western end of Eurasia:

It is from this country that all the various marvellous and rare objects of foreign states come.
—Hou Hanshu, cited in Leslie and Gardiner

[edit] Eastern travels of Maes Titianus

Maes Titianus went as far as Tashkurgan, known as the "Stone Tower" in Antiquity, the doorstep to China (in blue).

Maës Titianus, an ancient Roman Macedonian traveller,[26] penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world. In the early 2nd century[27] or at the end of the 1st century CE,[28] during a lull in the intermittent Roman struggles with Parthia, his party reached the famous Stone Tower, which, according to one theory, was Tashkurgan,[29] in the Pamirs. According to other writers, the 'Stone Tower' must have been located in the Alai Valley, west of Kashgar.[30][31][32]

[edit] First Roman embassy

Ptolemy's world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia (circa 150), indicating "Sinae" (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (Southeast Asian peninsula).

Direct trade links between the Mediterranean lands and India had been established in the 1st century BCE, after Greek navigators learnt to use the regular pattern of the monsoon winds for their trade voyages in the Indian Ocean. The lively sea trade in Roman times is confirmed by the excavation of large deposits of Roman coins along much of the coast of India. Many trading ports with links to Roman communities have been identified in India and Sri Lanka along the route used by the Roman mission.

The first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166, sixty years after the westbound expeditions of the Chinese general Ban Chao. The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China "from Andun (Chinese: 安敦; Emperor Antoninus Pius), king of Daqin (Rome)". (As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the convoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission given that both Emperors were named 'Antoninus'.) The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier of Jinan or Tonkin. It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in Southern Asia.[33] About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of astronomy from the Romans.[citation needed]

Detail of Asia in Ptolemy's world map. Gulf of the Ganges left, Southeast Asian peninsula in the center, China Sea right, with "Sinae" (China).

While the existence of China was clearly known to Roman cartographers of the time, its geographical position is depicted in Ptolemy's Geographia from c. 150 rather vaguely: On the map, China is located beyond the Aurea Chersonesus ("Golden Peninsula"), which refers to the Southeast Asian peninsula. It is shown as being on the Magnus Sinus ("Great Gulf"), which presumably corresponds to the known areas of the China Sea at the time; although Ptolemy represents it as tending to the southeast rather than to the northeast.

[edit] Other Roman embassies

Other embassies may have been sent after this first encounter, but were not recorded, until an account appears about presents sent in the early 3rd century by the Roman Emperor to Cao Rui of the Kingdom of Wei (reigned 227–239) in Northern China. The presents consisted of articles of glass in a variety of colours. While several Roman Emperors ruled during this time, the embassy, if genuine, may have been sent by Severus Alexander; since his successors reigned briefly and were busy with civil wars.

Bronze coin of Constantius II (337-361), found in Karghalik, modern China.

Another embassy from Daqin is recorded in the year 284, as bringing presents to the Chinese empire. This embassy presumably was sent by the Emperor Carus (282–283), whose short reign was occupied by war with Persia.

Chinese annals record other contacts with merchants from 'Fu-lin,' the new name used to designate the Byzantine Empire, the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east, taking place in 643 during the reign of Constans II (641-688).[34] Other contacts are reported taking place in 667, 701, and perhaps 719, sometimes through Central Asian intermediaries.[35] Still other contacts are recorded by the Chinese in the 11th century.

[edit] Letter from Ming Hongwu to Byzantium

"Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yuliang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'Sng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yüeh [=Fukien and Kuangtung^, and conquered Pa and Shu f_=Ssu-ch'ftan]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [—Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of 'the Great Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto, Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto."[36][37][38]

Emperor Ming Hongwu's Manifesto of Accession sent to the Byzantine Emperor.[39]

Ming Hongwu sent his manifesto of assecion to the Byzantine Emperor in 1371 by means of a letter.[40]

Emperor Ming Hongwu (Taizu) met with Nieh-ku-lun on September 1371 to give him the letter. Nieh-ku-lun was originally a merchant from Byzantium to China and was stranded in China after the Mongols were overthrown.[41][42] [43][44]

The Catholic Biship Nicolaus de Bentra of Cambaluc (Qanbaliq) may have been the "Nieh-ku-lun" mentioned in the letter.[45]


§ 2. The missionaries sent by the Roman pontiffs, in the preceding century, to the Chinese, the Tartars, and the adjacent countries, continued to gather numerous and large congregations among those nations. In the year 1307, Clement V, constituted John de monte Corvino archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking; for it is now beyond a doubt, that the celebrated city of Cathai, then called Cambalu, is the same with Peking, the modern capital of China. The same pontiff sent seven new bishops, all of them Franciscans, into those regions.(7) John xxii, appointed Nicolaus de Bentra, to succeed John tie Monte Corvino, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China. Benedict XII, in the year 1338, sent new nuncios into China and Tartary; after being honored with a solemn embassy from the Tartars, which he received at Avignon.(8) So long as the Tartar empire in China continued, not only the Latins, but the Nestorians also had liberty to profess their religion freely, all over northern Asia, and to propagate it far and wide.'[46]

It appeared that Nicolaus de Banthera never reached his destination after he was appointed as Archbishop of Beijing to succeed Joannes de Monte Corvino, since representatives of the Catholics in the Yuan dynasty were sent by the Yuan Emperor to Avignon five years after Nicolaus set off to take his post, saying that they did not have an Archbishop in Beijing.[47]

[edit] Hypothetical military contact

The Roman prisoners of the Battle of Carrhae were brought to Margiana by king Orodes. Their further fate is unknown.

The historian Homer H. Dubs speculated that Roman prisoners of war who were transferred to the Parthian eastern border might have later clashed with Han troops there.[48]

After losing at the battle of Carrhae in 54 BCE, an estimated 10,000 Roman prisoners were displaced by the Parthians to Margiana to man the frontier. About 18 years later the nomadic Xiongnu chief Zhizhi established a state in the nearby Talas valley, near modern day Taraz.

Taking up these two strands, Dubs points to a Chinese account by Ban Gu of about "a hundred men" under the command of Zhizhi who fought in a so-called "fish-scale formation" to defend Zhizhi's wooden-palisade fortress against Han forces, in the Battle of Zhizhi in 36 BCE. He claimed that this might have been the Roman testudo formation and that these men, who were captured by the Chinese, founded the village of Liqian (Li-chien) in Yongchang County.[49]

However, Dubs' hypothesis has not found acceptance among modern academics. There is no evidence that these men were Romans,[50] and recent DNA testing of the male inhabitants of Liqian does not support the hypothesis.[51]

Newspaper reports in 2010 have claimed DNA tests now confirm "Caucasian origin" for a majority of Liqian residents.[52][53]

[edit] See also

[edit] Footnotes

  •  This article incorporates text from China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediaeval relations as represented in old Chinese records, by Friedrich Hirth, a publication from 1885 now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediæval relations as represented in old Chinese records, by Friedrich Hirth, a publication from 1885 now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediæval relations as represented in old Chinese records, by Friedrich Hirth, a publication from 1885 now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China, by COLONEL SIR HENRY YULE, a publication from 1913 now in the public domain in the United States.
  •  This article incorporates text from Institutes of ecclesiastical history: ancient and modern ..., by Johann Lorenz Mosheim, James Murdock, a publication from 1832 now in the public domain in the United States.
  1. ^ "Cathay and the way thither" by Henry Yule p.18
  2. ^ Hill (2009), p. 5.
  3. ^ Pulleybank (1999), p. 77f.
  4. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20.
  5. ^ Pulleybank (1999), p. 78
  6. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27.
  7. ^ Thorley (1971), pp. 71-80.
  8. ^ Hirth (1885), pp. 47-48.
  9. ^ Schoff (1915), p. 237
  10. ^ Pulleyblank (1999), p. 71
  11. ^ Pulleyblank (1999), p. 78
  12. ^ Schoff (1915), p. 229
  13. ^ John Thorley: "The Roman Empire and the Kushans", Greece & Rome, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1979), pp. 181-190 (187f.)
  14. ^ Thorley (1971), pp. 71-80 (76)
  15. ^ [1]
  16. ^ Roman social history by Tim G. Parkin p.289 [2]. Original Latin: "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" [3].
  17. ^ Hill (2009), p. 291.
  18. ^ Milton Osborne, The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future (2001:25).
  19. ^ Hill 2004 - see: [4] and Appendix F.
  20. ^ Zürcher (2002), pp. 30-31.
  21. ^ Thorley (1971), pp. 71-80.
  22. ^ Hill (2009), Appendix B - Sea Silk, pp. 466-476.
  23. ^ Hill (2009), pp. 5, 481-483.
  24. ^ Hill (2009), p. xx.
  25. ^ Hill (2009), pp. 23, 25.
  26. ^ His "Macedonian" origin betokens no more than his cultural affinity, and the name Maës is Semitic in origin (Cary 1956:130).
  27. ^ The mainstream opinion, noted by Cary 1956:130 note 7, based on the date of Marinus, established by his use of many Trajanic foundation names but none identifiable with Hadrian.
  28. ^ This is Cary's dating.
  29. ^ Centuries later Tashkurgan ('Stone Tower') was the capital of the Pamir kingdom of Sarikol.
  30. ^ Hill (2009), pp. xiii, 396,
  31. ^ Stein (1907), pp. 44-45.
  32. ^ Stein (1933), pp. 47, 292-295.
  33. ^ Hill (2009), p. 27 and nn. 12.18 and 12.20.
  34. ^ See http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html
  35. ^ Mango, Marlia Mundell. Byzantine Trade: Local, Regional, Interregional, and International See http://www.gowerpublishing.com/pdf/SamplePages/Byzantine_Trade_4th_12th_Centuries_Ch1.pdf
  36. ^ Friedrich Hirth (1885). China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediaeval relations as represented in old Chinese records. ATLA monograph preservation program. LEIPSIC & MUNICH: G. Hirth. p. 66. http://books.google.com/books?id=dk4uAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA66&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&hl=en&ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=as%20a%20simple%20peasant%20of%20Huai-yu%2C%20conceived%20the%20patriotic%20idea%20to%20save%20the%20people&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "(Ming-sfit'h, concluded in A.D. 1724, and embracing the period A.D. 1368-1643, ch. 326.1) [1] Fu-lin is the same as Ta-ts'in of the Han period. [2] It first communicated with China at the time of the emperor Huan-ti [A.D. 147-168]. [3] During the Chin and Wei dynasties it was also called Ta-ts'in, and tribute was sent to China. 1 Cf. translation by Bretschneider, China Rtviev, IV., p. 39a [4] During the T'ang dynasty it was called Fu-lin. [5] During the Sung it was still so called, and they sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during former dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court [See N, a], which throws doubt on its identity with Ta-ts'in. [6] At the close of the Yuan dynasty [A.D. 1278-1368] a native of this country, named Nieh-ku-lun,1 came to China for trading purposes. [7] When, after the fall of the Yuan, he was not able to return, the emperor T'ai-tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung-wu [==September 1371] and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission to his king, [8] which read as follows: "Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their 1 "Pope John XXII appointed Nicolaus de Bentra to succeed John dc Monte Corvino as Archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China." Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, translated by James Murdock, Vol. II, p. 359; cf. Remusat, Now. Mil. Asia!., Vol. II, p. 198. Bretschneider, Arabs, etc., p. 25, says: "It is possible that the Nie-ku-lun of the Chinese Annals is identical with the Monk Nicolas. The statement of the Chinese that Nicolas carried on commerce does not contradict this view. Perhaps he trafficked in fact, or he considered it necessary to intrcdure himself under the name of a merchant." I fully concur with this misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in i:he west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yuliang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'Sng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yiieh [=Fukien and Kuangtung^, and conquered Pa and Shu f_=Ssu-ch'ftan]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [—Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of 'the Great Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto, Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto." [9] And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. [10] But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [A.D. 1573-1620] a native from the great western ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-te--a [Judasa] which is identical with the old country of Ta-ts'in ;l that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all wordly affairs; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. [11] This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. [12] As regards the abundance of produce and other precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found in former annals." Original from Harvard University
  37. ^ Friedrich Hirth (1885) (in LEIPSIC & MUNICH). China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediæval relations as represented in old Chinese records. G. Hirth. p. 66. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=hIECwYbqWlkC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&ots=xW7yQ7Bx5z&sig=GtrLIVt6lGcdAOPJQ2MbCDtpJqc#v=snippet&q=as%20a%20simple%20peasant%20of%20Huai-yu%2C%20conceived%20the%20patriotic%20idea%20to%20save%20the%20people&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "4] During the T'ang dynasty it was called Fu-lin. [5] During the Sung it was still so called, and they sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during former dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court [See N, 2], which throws doubt on its identity with Ta-ts'in. [6] At the close of the Yuan dynasty [A.D. 1278-1368] a native of this country, named Nieh-ku-lun,1 came to China for trading purposes. [7] When, after the fall of the Yuan, he was not able to return, the emperor T'ai-tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung-wu [=September 1371] and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission to his king, [8] which read as follows: "Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yuliang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'eng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yiieh [=Fukien and Kuangtung], and conquered Pa and Shu [=Ssu-ch'iian]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [=Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the. Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of 'the Great Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto." [9J And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. [10] But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [A.D. 1573-1620] a native from the great western ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-te-a [Judaea] which is identical with the old country of Ta-ts'in j1 that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all wordly affairs; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. [n] This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. [12] As regards the abundance of produce and other precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found former annals. 1 "Pope John XXII appointed Nicolaus de Bentra to succeed John de Monte Corvino as Archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China." Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, translated by James Murdock, Vol. II, p. 359; cf. Remusat, Nouv. Mel. Asiat., Vol. II, p. 198. Bretschneider, Arabs, etc., p. 25, says: "It is possible that the Nie-ku-lun of the Chinese Annals is identical with the Monk Nicolas. The statement of the Chinese that Nicolas carried on commerce does not contradict this view. Perhaps he trafficked in fact, or he considered it necessary to introduce himself under the name of a merchant." I fully concur with this view." Original from Harvard University
  38. ^ Friedrich Hirth (1885). China and the Roman Orient: researches into their ancient and mediæval relations as represented in old Chinese records. Volume 7 of Nineteenth century : books on China. LEIPSIC & MUNICH: G. Hirth. p. 66. http://books.google.com/books?id=hocNAAAAIAAJ&q=Nieh-ku-lun#v=onepage&q=huai-yu&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "(Ming-shih, concluded in A.D. 1724, and embracing the period A.D. 1368-1643, ch. 326.1) [1] Fu-lin is the same as Ta-ts'in of the Han period. [2] It first communicated with China at the time of the emperor Huan-ti [A.D. 147-168]. [3] During the Chin and Wei dynasties it was also called Ta-ts'in, and tribute was sent to China. [4] During the T'ang dynasty it was called Fu-lin. [5] During the Sung it was still so called, and they sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during former dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court [See N, 2], which throws doubt on its identity with Ta-ts'in. [6] At the close of the Yuan dynasty [A.D. 1278-1368] a native of this country, named Nieh-ku-lun,1 came to China for trading purposes. [7] When, after the fall qf the Yuan, he was not able to return, the emperor T'ai-tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung-wu [=September 1371] and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission to his king, [8] which read as follows: "Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their 1 Cf. translation by Bretschneider, China Review, IV., p. 390. 1 " Pope John XXII appointed Nicolaus de Bentra to succeed John de Monte Corvino as Archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China." Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, translated by James Murdock, Vol. II, p. 359; cf. Remusat, Nouv. Mil. Asiat,, Vol. II, p. 198. Bretschneider, Arabs, etc., p. 25, says: "It is possible that the Nie-ku-lun of the Chinese Annals is identical with the Monk Nicolas. The statement of the Chinese that Nicolas carried on commerce does not contradict this view. Perhaps he trafficked in fact, or he considered it necessary to introduce himself under the name of a merchant." I fully concur with this misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yuliang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'eng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yueh [=Fukien and Kuangtung], and conquered Pa and Shu [=Ssu-ch'iian]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [=Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of 'the Great Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto." [9] And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. [10] But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [A.D. 1573-1620] a native from the great western ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-te-a • [Judaea] which is identical with the old country of Ta-ts'in j1 that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all wordly affairs; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. [11] This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. [12] As regards the abundance of produce and other precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found in former annals." Original from the University of Michigan
  39. ^ R. G. Grant (2005). Battle: a visual journey through 5,000 years of combat (illustrated ed.). DK Pub.. p. 99. ISBN 0756613604. http://books.google.com/books?id=Gb8qAQAAMAAJ&pg=PT102&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&hl=en&ei=F-XmTv6FHYHx0gHV4JTjCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ. Retrieved 12/9/2011. ""But when the nation began to rouse itself, we, as a simple peasants of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people. . ." Manifestor of Accession, sent by Zhu Yuanzhang to Byzantine emperor, 1372" Original from Northwestern University
  40. ^ Edward Luttwak (2009). The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 169. ISBN 0674035194. http://books.google.com/books?id=3cBjc6QCBXkC&pg=PA170&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&hl=en&ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=hongwu%20accession%20byzantium%20john%20v%20palaiologos&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "in 1371 the first Ming emperor, Hongwu, sent an announcement of his accession to the emperor of Byzantium. He would not have bothered had he known that the domain of John V Palaiologos (1341-1376) was by then reduced to a shrunken and impoverished Constantinople with a few insular and peninsular remnants...The texts of the announcement explains why the Ming emperor Hongwu (Hung-woo T'i in the old Wade-Giles transliteration), the former starveling peasant, monastery servant, and rebel Zhu Yuanzhang, was impelled to announced his accesion as widely as possible. He presents himself as China's first Chinese ruler after the Yuan dyhnasty of the Mongols of Kublai Qan, and seeks legitimization for his new Ming dynasty be appealing to national sentiments that seem startlingly modern." 
  41. ^ COLONEL SIR HENRY YULE, R. E., C.B., K.C.S.I., ed (1913). Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China. VOL. III. London: Printed for the Hakluyt society. http://www.archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither03yule#page/12/mode/2up/search/our+middle. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "' ["At the close of the Yiian Dynasty [a.d. i 278-1 368] a native of this country [Fu lin], named Nieh-ku-lun, came to China for trading purposes. When, after the fall of the Yiian, he was not able to return, the Emperor T'ai Tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung Wu ( = Sep- tember 1 371) and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission to his king, which read as follows : ' Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yiian [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself. We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across east- ward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years ; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yu-liang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'eng; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yueh [ = Fu kien and Kwang tung], and conquered Pa and Shu [ = Sze ch'wan]; We have in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [ = Chi li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastic title of the Great Ming," commencing with Our reign styled Hung W^u, of which we now are in the fourth year. We have sent officers with this Manifesto except to you, Fu lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your own country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe. We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four Seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto.' And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [a.d. 1573- 1620] a native from the great Western Ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-te-a [Judaea] which is identical with the old country of Ta Ts'in; that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6000 years; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all worldly affairs ; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. As regards the abundance of produce and other INTRODUCTORY NOTICES I 3 forth accompanied by twenty friars and six laymen. But it is not known what became of the party\ Their arrival at Almaliq and civil treatment there were heard of'-, but nothing beyond ; there is no indication of their having ever reached the Court of Cathay" 
  42. ^ Henry Yule. Cathay and the Way Thither - 4 Vols.. Asian Educational Services. p. 12. ISBN 8120619668. http://books.google.com/books?id=rMIWlq6JeccC&pg=PA12&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&hl=en&ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=as%20a%20simple%20peasant%20of%20Huai-yu%2C%20conceived%20the%20patriotic%20idea%20to%20save%20the%20people&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "[" At the close of the Yüan Dynasty [A.D. 1278-1368] a native of this country [Fu lin], named Nieh-ku-lun, came to China for trading purposes. When, after the fall of the Yüan, he was not able to return, the Emperor T'ai Tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the 4th year of Hung Wu (=September 1371) and gave orders than an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission to his king, which read as follows : 'Since the Sung dynasty had lost the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yüan [Mongol] dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of Chian were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as -a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years ; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'ên Yu-liang ; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'êng ; We have, in the south, subdued Min and Yuëh [ = Fu Kien and Kwang tung], and conquered Pa and Shu [ = Sze ch'wan ]; We have in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [ =Chi li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of China under the dynastyic title of "the Great Ming," commencing with our reign styled Hung Wu, of which we are not in the fourth year. We have sent officers with this Manifestor except to you, Fu lin, who, being separated form us by the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your own country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognised all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four Seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto.' And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with tribute. But this embassy was, in the sequal, not repeated until during the Wan-li period [ A.D. 1573-1620] a native from the great Western Ocean came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-tê-a [Judaea] which is identical with the old country of Ta Ts'in ; that this country is known in the historical books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6000 years ; that it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all worldly affairs ; that it should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. This account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. As regards the abundanec of produce and other precious articles found in this counrty, accouints will be found in former annals." Ming Shih, translated by Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, pp. 64-67." 
  43. ^ Henri Cordier (1967). Sir Henry Yule. ed. Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China (reprint ed.). Kraus Reprint. p. 12. http://books.google.com/books?ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&ct=result&id=u1nPZVNfsRoC&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu%2C+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&q=Huai-yu. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "enter and rule over China for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the river. We have then been engaged in" Original from the University of Michigan
  44. ^ George Nye Steiger (1944). A history of the Far East. Ginn and company. p. 306. http://books.google.com/books?ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&ct=result&id=wSEdAAAAMAAJ&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu%2C+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&q=Huai-yu. Retrieved 2011 November 28. "Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs of China were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people. . . . We have established peace in the Empire and restored the old boundaries of Our Middle Land. We were selected by Our people to occupy the" Original from the University of Michigan
  45. ^ Edward Luttwak (2009). The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0674035194. http://books.google.com/books?id=3cBjc6QCBXkC&pg=PA170&dq=as+a+simple+peasant+of+Huai-yu,+conceived+the+patriotic+idea+to+save+the+people&hl=en&ei=2c_mTtbnM-fn0QHK08D6CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=as%20a%20simple%20peasant%20of%20Huai-yu%2C%20conceived%20the%20patriotic%20idea%20to%20save%20the%20people&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "Since the . . . Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had risen form the [Gobi] desert to enter and rule over . . . [China] for more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, . . . the affairs of [China] were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the patriotic idea to save the people. . . . We have then been engaged in war for fourteen years. . . . We have [now] established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of [China]. . . . We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms. . . except to you, Fu-lin [Rome, Byzantium], who, being separated from us by the westsern sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognized all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this Manifesto. Inicidentally, the messenger Nieh-ku-lun may have been the Franciscan Nicolaus de Bentra, bishop of Cambaluc, Latinization of Qanbaliq, Mongol for the qagan's residence that is the Yuan capital, now known as the "northern capital," Beijing." 
  46. ^ Institutes of ecclesiastical history: ancient and modern .... Volume 2 of Institutes of Ecclesiastical History: Ancient and Modern. NEW HAVEN: A. H. Maltby. 1832. p. 415. http://books.google.com/books?id=1wsQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA415&lpg=PA415&dq=nicolaus+de+bentra&source=bl&ots=c5rCVLN9HX&sig=GyTs3vlSn7-lYPvIBv3tDsn7DjM&hl=en&ei=ZX91TqyiHaTz0gHP0tntDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=nicolaus%20de%20bentra&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "§ 2. The missionaries sent by the Roman pontiffs, in the preceding century, to the Chinese, the Tartars, and the adjacent countries, continued to gather numerous and large congregations among those nations. In the year 1307, Clement V, constituted John de monte Corvino archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking; for it is now beyond a doubt, that the celebrated city of Cathai, then called Cambalu, is the same with Peking, the modern capital of China. The same pontiff sent seven new bishops, all of them Franciscans, into those regions.(7) John xxii, appointed Nicolaus de Bentra, to succeed John tie Monte Corvino, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was then the sovereign of China. Benedict XII, in the year 1338, sent new nuncios into China and Tartary; after being honored with a solemn embassy from the Tartars, which he received at Avignon.(8) So long as the Tartar empire in China continued, not only the Latins, but the Nestorians also had liberty to profess their religion freely, all over northern Asia, and to propagate it far and wide.'" Original from Harvard University
  47. ^ John Laurence von Mosheim (1862). Authentic Memoirs of the Christian Church in China. Elibron Classics series (reprint ed.). Elibron.com. p. 52. ISBN 1402181094. http://books.google.com/books?id=r92xuYbpbywC&pg=PA52&lpg=PA52&dq=nicolaus+de+bentra&source=bl&ots=IUreoOU2xj&sig=nNygBKAniDvWhYnCKCGvltxemg0&hl=en&ei=ZX91TqyiHaTz0gHP0tntDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=nicolaus%20de%20bentra&f=false. Retrieved 12/9/2011. "Nicolaus de Banthera, or de Bentra, a Franciscan, was appointed by Pope John XXII., in the year 1333, as the successor of Joannes de Monte Corvino ; and he was directed to take with him twenty-six companions of the same Order. The Pope, in his letter to the Khan, commends the new Archbishop as being "fervent in devotion, and in the Catholic faith ; as remarkably skilled in the holy Scriptures, and a man of experience in words and deeds." But what happened to this Nicolaus cannot be ascertained. It is evident that he had not reached his diocese within five years from the date of his appointment ; for in 1338 ambassadors came from the Emperor of the Tartars to Pope Benedict XII., who was then at Avignon, to represent that since the death of Joannes de Monte Corvino, eight years previously, their countrymen had been left without a Governor, and without spiritual consolation :Nicolaus de Banthera, or de Bentra, a Franciscan, was appointed by Pope John XXII., in the year 1333, as the successor of Joannes de Monte Corvino ; and he was directed to take with him twenty-six companions of the same Order. The Pope, in his letter to the Khan, commends the new Archbishop as being "fervent in devotion, and in the Catholic faith ; as remarkably skilled in the holy Scriptures, and a man of experience in words and deeds." But what happened to this Nicolaus cannot be ascertained. It is evident that he had not reached his diocese within five years from the date of his appointment ; for in 1338 ambassadors came from the Emperor of the Tartars to Pope Benedict XII., who was then at Avignon, to represent that since the death of Joannes de Monte Corvino, eight years previously, their countrymen had been left without a Governor, and without spiritual consolation :—they had heard, it was true, that a successor to him had been elected ; but he had never arrived." 
  48. ^ Homer H. Dubs: "An Ancient Military Contact between Romans and Chinese", The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 62, No. 3 (1941), pp. 322-330
  49. ^ Archaeology.org, Italy Magazine, Xinhua, The Daily Telegraph, 2 February 2007
  50. ^ Detailed analysis by Ethan Gruber
  51. ^ Zhou R, An L, Wang X, Shao W, Lin G, Yu W, Yi L, Xu S, Xu J, Xie X, Testing the hypothesis of an ancient Roman soldier origin of the Liqian people in northwest China: a Y-chromosome perspective. J Hum Genet. 2007; 52(7): 584-91
  52. ^ Chinese villagers 'descended from Roman soldiers'. The Daily Telegraph. 23 Nov 2010.
  53. ^ DNA tests show Chinese villagers with green eyes could be descendants of lost Roman legion. Mail Online. 26 Nov 2010.

[edit] References

  • Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. 
  • Hirth, Friedrich (1885): China and the Roman Orient. 1875. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975.
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G.: "The Roman Empire as Known to Han China", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119, No. 1 (1999), pp. 71–79
  • Schoff, Wilfred H.: "The Eastern Iron Trade of the Roman Empire", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 35 (1915), pp. 224–239.
  • Stein, Aurel M. (1907), Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan. 2 vols. pp. 44–45. M. Aurel Stein. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
  • Stein, Aurel M. (1932), On Ancient Central Asian Tracks: Brief Narrative of Three Expeditions in Innermost Asia and Northwestern China, pp. 47, 292-295. Reprinted with Introduction by Jeannette Mirsky. Book Faith India, Delhi. 1999.
  • Thorley, J. (1971), The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at Its Height, 'Circa' A. D. 90-130, Greece & Rome,Vol. 18, No. 1 (1971), pp. 71–80
  • Yule, Henry. Cathay and the Way Thither. 1915.
  • Zürcher, Erik (2002): "Tidings from the South, Chinese Court Buddhism and Overseas Relations in the Fifth Century AD." Erik Zürcher in: A Life Journey to the East. Sinological Studies in Memory of Giuliano Bertuccioli (1923-2001). Edited by Antonio Forte and Federico Masini. Italian School of East Asian Studies. Kyoto. Essays: Volume 2, pp. 21–43.

[edit] Further reading

  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation. [5]
  • Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1. 
  • Leslie, D. D., Gardiner, K. H. J.: "The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources", Studi Orientali, Vol. 15. Rome: Department of Oriental Studies, University of Rome, 1996
  • Schoff, Wilfred H.: "Navigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 37 (1917), pp. 240–249

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