Sociological theory

"Sociological Perspectives" redirects here. For the journal, see Sociological Perspectives (journal).

In sociology, sociological perspectives, theories, or paradigms are complex theoretical and methodological frameworks used to analyze and explain objects of social study. They facilitate organizing sociological knowledge. Sociological theory is constantly evolving, and can never be presumed to be complete.

Theory is informed by epistemological discussions as to the most reliable and valid social research methods to use in the conduct of social science. Perspectives also relate to core assumptions regarding the ontological nature of the social world. Theory is thus informed by historical debates over positivism and antipositivism, debates over the primacy of structure and agency, as well as debates relating to other fundamental key concepts in the social sciences and humanities in general (e.g. materialism, idealism, determinism, dialecticism, modernity, globalization, postmodernity, and so on).

Sociological theory vs. social theory

Sociological theory is such a broad field of study and thought, that some researches have suggested new subcategories. Allan suggest the terms "Sociological" theory and "social" theory. Social theory, according to Allan, focuses on commentary and critique of modern society rather than explanation. Prominent social theorists include Jürgen Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, Anthony Giddens, Erving Goffman, Michel Foucault, Dorothy Smith, Alfred Schutz, Jeffrey Alexander, and Jacques Derrida. Note however that these authors theories are very much different. What unifies them is only that they do not use statistical test in their works, but several where in fact very much empirical in their studies. E.g. Goffman, who got himself committed to a psychiatric ward in order to study the microsociology of institutionalized madness.

Sociological theory, on the other hand, is centered on the attempt to create abstract, testable propositions about society. Whereas sociological theory often relies heavily on the scientific method, aims for objectivity, and attempts to avoid passing value judgments, social theory is often closer to Continental philosophy, more subjective, and is much more likely to use the language of values and judgment, referring to concepts as "good" or "bad". Prominent sociological theorists include Talcott Parsons, Robert K. Merton, Randall Collins, James Samuel Coleman, Peter Blau, Immanuel Wallerstein, George Homans, Harrison White, Theda Skocpol, Gerhard Lenski, Pierre van den Berghe and Jonathan H. Turner.

Blurry boundaries affect social science, and there are prominent scholars who could be seen as being in between social and sociological theories, such as Harold Garfinkel, Herbert Blumer, and Claude Lévi-Strauss.

Development of sociological theory

Sociological theory is constantly evolving, and can never be presumed to be complete. New sociological theories build upon the work of their predecessors and add to them, but classic sociological theories are still considered important and current.

Whereas the field of sociology itself and sociological theory by extension is relatively new, dating to 18th and 19th centuries (see history of sociology), it is closely tied to a much older field of social sciences (and social theory) in general. Sociology has separated itself from the other social sciences with its focus on society, a concept that goes beyond nation, and includes communities, organizations and relationships.

Some of the key developments that influenced sociological theory were: the rise of individualism, the appearance of the modern state, industrialization and capitalism, colonization and globalization, and the world wars. Those and similar developments challenged contemporary thinkers, inspiring them to question whether existing theories can explain the observed reality, and to build on them, creating alternate theories, in search for the explanation of the observed society.

List of sociological theories

Some of the major general sociological theories (and their variants) include:

• Conflict theory: the "haves" convinced the "have nots" using ideological power to convince the masses their ideals are the same as the elite
• Critical theory: aims to critique and change society, not simply to document and understand it.
• Ethnomethodology: examines how people make sense out of social life in the process of living it, as if each were a researcher engaged in enquiry.
• Feminist theory: focuses on how gender inequality has shaped social life.
• Functionalism: focuses on how elements of society need to work together to have a fully functioning whole
• Interpretive sociology: This theoretical perspective, based on the work of Max Weber, proposes that social, economic and historical research can never be fully empirical or descriptive as one must always approach it with a conceptual apparatus.
• Network theory: A structural approach to sociology, most closely associated with the work of Harrison White, that views norms and behaviors as embedded in chains of social relations.
• Social phenomenology: The social phenomenology of Alfred Schütz influenced the development of the social constructionism and ethnomethodology.
• Postcolonial theory
• Rational choice theory: models social behavior as the interaction of utility maximizing individuals.
• Social constructionism: is a sociological theory of knowledge that considers how social phenomena develop in particular social contexts.
• Structural functionalism: also known as a social systems paradigm, addresses the functions that various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.
• Symbolic interactionism: examines how shared meanings and social patterns are developed in the course of social interactions.
  • Dramaturgical perspective - a specialized symbolic interactionism paradigm developed by Erving Goffman, seeing life as a performance

Criminology

Main article: Criminology

• The general theory of crime
• Differential association theory
• Labeling theory
• Rational choice theory (criminology)
• Social disorganization theory
• Social learning theory
• Strain theory (sociology)
• Subcultural theory

Social movements

Main article: Social movements

Sociologists have developed various theories about social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Chronologically (by approximate date of origin) they include:

• Collective behavior/collective action theories (1950s)
• Relative deprivation theory (1960s)
• Value-added theory (1960s)
• Resource mobilization/Political process theory (1970s)
• Frame analysis theory (1970s)
• New social movement theory (1980s)
• New cultural theory (1990s) -- James M. Jasper, Jeff Goodwin et al.

Sociology of science and technology

Main article: Sociology of science

Sociologists have been active in developing theories about the nature of science and technology:

• "Institutional" sociology of science (Robert K. Merton) (1960s)
• Sociology of scientific knowledge (1970s)
  • Social construction of technology (1980s) - variant of SSK focusing on technology studies.
• Actor-network theory (1980s)
• Normalization Process Theory (2000s)

Methods of studying Sociology: Positivism: Social positivists believe that social processes should be studied in terms of cause and effect using 'the' scientific method.

• • Also: Sociological positivism

See also

• Sociological imagination

Further reading

• Adams, Bert N. and R. A. Sydie. 2001. Sociological Theory. Pine Forge Press
• Babbie, Earl R. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., ISBN 0-534-62029-9
• Michael Hughes, Carolyn J. Kroehler, James W. Vander Zanden. 'Sociology: The Core', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-240535-X Online chapter summary
• Ritzer, George and Douglas Goodman. 2004. Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill.

External links

• American Sociological Association - Theory Section
• European Sociological Association: Social Theory Research Network (RN29)
• International Sociological Association: Research Committee on Sociological Theory (RC16)
• Sociological Theory (journal)
• Cliffs Notes - Three Major Perspectives in Sociology