Electroacoustic music

Electroacoustic music originated in Western art music during its modern era following the incorporation of electric sound production into compositional practice. The initial developments in electroacoustic music composition during the 20th century are associated with the activities of composers who were based at research studios in Europe and America at that time.^{[citation needed]} These include the Groupe de Recherches Musicales at the ORTF in Paris, the home of musique concrete, the Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) studio in Cologne, where the focus was on the composition of elektronische Musik, and the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in New York, where tape music, electronic music, and computer music were all explored.

Tape music

See also: Musique concrete

Tape music is a form of music which began soon after tape recording was invented, as people could now create sounds that were for the first time identical with each performance. Users of this new technology began to develop a new musical ethic around the idea of the created artificial sound; as now music no longer had to be related to live performance of instruments, but now, the recording itself is the performance. Electroacoustic music and particularly musique concrète made extensive use of magnetic tape, so much that the terms "tape music" and "musique concrete" were sometimes used interchangeably, though, strictly speaking, they are not necessarily the same thing.^{[citation needed]}

Before recording technology, "music" referred only to live music. So when the recording media first appeared, the transformation of the music paradigm was profound. The experience of listening to music was seldom repetitive before recording, unlike listening to a tape which is more or less identical at each hearing. In addition, this experience is also shared by everyone who listens to the same recording, making commonality of message and musical experience a unifying social ritual for the first time.^{[citation needed]}

The work of Halim El-Dabh is perhaps the earliest example of tape music. El-Dabh's The Expression of Zaar, first presented in Cairo, Egypt in 1944, but now lost, was an early work using musique concréte like techniques similar to those developed in Paris during the same period. El-Dabh would later become more famous for his work at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, where in 1959 he composed the influential piece Leiyla and the Poet (Holmes 2008, 153–54 & 157).

US composer John Cage's assembly of the Williams Mix serves as an example of the rigors of tape music. First, Cage created a 192-page score. Over the course of a year, 600 sounds were assembled and recorded. Cut tape segments for each occurrence of each sound were accumulated on the score. Then the cut segments were spliced to one of eight tapes, work finished on January 16, 1953. The premiere performance (realization) of the 4'15" work was given on March 21, 1953 at the University of Illinois, Urbana (Chaudron n.d.).

The underlying philosophy of tape music spawned a whole new direction in musicianship, and music styles that would follow. Electronic music, electronica, New Age, hip hop and other incarnations are direct descendants of the original tape music philosophy.^{[citation needed]}

The musique concrète group was centered in Paris and was pioneered by Pierre Schaeffer; their music was based on the juxtaposition and transformation of natural sounds (meaning real, recorded sounds, not necessarily those made by natural forces) recorded to tape or disc.^{[citation needed]}

Electronic music

See also: Electronic music

In Cologne, elektronische Musik, pioneered in 1949–51 by the composer Herbert Eimert and the physicist Werner Meyer-Eppler, was based solely on electronically generated (synthetic) sounds, particularly sine waves (Eimert 1957, 2; Morawska-Büngeler 1988, 11–13; Ungeheuer 1992, 13). The beginning of the development of electronic music has been traced back to “the invention of the valve [vacuum tube] in 1906” (Eimert 1957, 2). The precise control afforded by the studio allowed for what Eimert considered to be the subjection of everything, “to the last element of the single note”, to serial permutation, “resulting in a completely new way of composing sound” (Eimert 1957, 8); in the studio, serial operations could be applied to elements such as timbre and dynamics. The common link between the two schools is that the music is recorded and performed through loudspeakers, without a human performer. While serialism has been largely abandoned in electroacoustic circles, the majority of electroacoustic pieces use a combination of recorded sound and synthesized or processed sounds, and the schism between Schaeffer’s and Eimert’s approaches has been overcome, the first major example being Karlheinz Stockhausen’s Gesang der Jünglinge of 1955–56 (Morawska-Büngeler 1988, 17; Stockhausen 1996, 93–94).

Sound generation techniques

All electroacoustic music is made with electronic technology. Some electroacoustic compositions make use of sounds not available to typical acoustic instruments, such as those used in a traditional orchestra. The interaction between sounds and the ways they are transfigured over time has been termed “spectromorphology” by the composer Denis Smalley (Smalley 1997).

Electroacoustic as a term applied to describe musical instruments can mean that the sound of the instrument is generated acoustically, by strings for example, but that there is no traditional acoustic sound box. Amplification is accomplished through electronic pickups and amplifiers. Design of these instruments are typically cut down and very minimal and may consist of only a fingerboard, bridge, and tuning machines. The term electroacoustic can also mean that the instrument can be played either electrically or acoustically as in hollow body electric guitars. Both systems of amplification exist simultaneously in the same instrument and it will work well either way.^{[citation needed]}

Audio feedback

Main article: Audio feedback

Audio feedback is a special kind of feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a microphone or guitar pickup) and an audio output (for example, a loudspeaker). While audio feedback is usually undesirable, it has entered into musical history as a desired effect beginning in the early 1960s. It is now well associated with the history of rock music where electric guitar players such as Pete Townshend and Jimi Hendrix have used it extensively. Some of the earliest users of guitar feedback were 1950s musicians with Albert Collins, Johnny “Guitar” Watson and Guitar Slim all independently recording and publishing music featuring that effect. Outside of the rock tradition, an early user of feedback was the contemporary American composer Robert Ashley who first used feedback as sound material in his work Wolfman (1964).^{[citation needed]}

Circuit bending

Main article: Circuit bending

Circuit bending is the creative short-circuiting of low voltage, battery-powered electronic audio devices such as guitar effects, children’s toys and small synthesizers to create new musical instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with noise music, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with “bent” instruments (Collins 2006,).

Examples of notable electroacoustic works

• Milton Babbitt — Philomel (1964)
• Luciano Berio — Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) (1958–59)
• Pierre Boulez — Répons (1981–84)
• John Cage - Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939)
• Mario Davidovsky —Synchronisms No. 6 (1970)
• Halim El-Dabh — Leiyla and the Poet (1961)
• Karel Goeyvaerts — Nummer 5 met zuivere tonen (1953)
• Alvin Lucier — I Am Sitting in a Room (1970)
• Steve Reich — Pendulum Music (1968), for microphones, amplifiers, speakers and performers
• Pierre Schaeffer - Cinq études de bruits (1948)
• Karlheinz Stockhausen — Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56), Kontakte (1958–60), Mixtur (1964), Mikrophonie I & II (1964 and 1965), Telemusik (1966), Hymnen (1966–67)
• James Tenney — For Ann (rising) (1969)
• Edgard Varèse — Poème électronique (1958)

Electronic and electroacoustic instruments

Birotron (1974), Dave Biro Buchla Lightning I (1991) and Buchla Lightning II (1995), Don Buchla Cembaphon (1951), Harald Bode Chamberlin (1946) Clavinet Clavioline (early 1950s) and Concert Clavioline (1953), Harald Bode DX7 (1983), Yamaha Elektronium (in German) EMS Synthi AKS (1972) Fairlight CMI (1978) Gravikord (1986), Robert Grawi Kraakdoos / Cracklebox (1960s–70s), Michel Waisvisz Mellotron (1960s) Melochord (1947–49), Harald Bode Melodium (1938), Harald Bode

Moog Synthesizer (1971), Harald Bode et al. Optigan (1971) Orchestron (1975), Vako Synthesizers Inc. Polychord (1950) and Polychord III (1951), Harald Bode Electronic Sackbut (1945), Hugh Le Caine Sampler (musical instrument) Synclavier (1975), Jon Appleton, Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron Jones Telharmonium (1897), Thaddeus Cahill Theremin (1928), Léon Theremin Tuttivox (1953), Harald Bode UPIC (1977), Iannis Xenakis and CEMAMu Warbo Formant organ (1937), Harald Bode

Centers, associations and events for electroacoustics and related arts

Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the International Computer Music Conference, the International Conference on New interfaces for musical expression, the Bourges International Electroacoustic Music Festival (Bourges, France), and the Ars Electronica Festival (Linz, Austria).

A number of national associations promote the art form, notably the Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC) in Canada, the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS) in the US, the Australasian Computer Music Association in Australia and New Zealand, and Sound and Music (previously the Sonic Arts Network) in the UK. The Computer Music Journal and Organised Sound are the two most important peer-reviewed journals dedicated to electroacoustic studies, while several national associations produce print and electronic publications.

Festivals

• FUTURA — Festival international d’art acousmatique et des arts de support (Crest, France)
• Inventionen (Berlin)
• SICMF — Seoul International Computer Music Festival
• 60x60

Conferences and symposiums

Alongside paper presentations, workshops and seminars, many of these events also feature concert performances or sound installations created by those attending or which are related to the theme of the conference / symposium.

• ICMC — International Computer Music Conference (coordinated by International Computer Music Association since 1974)
• NIME — International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (since 2000)
• SEAMUS — Society for Electro-Acoustic Music National Conference (coordinated by SEAMUS since 1985)
• TES — Toronto Electroacoustic Symposium (since 2007)

See also

• Acousmatic music
• Computer music
• Digital signal processing
• Electronic art music
• Experimental music
• Electroacoustic improvisation
• Japanoise
• List of acousmatic-music composers
• Prepared guitar
• Sonology
• Sound recording and reproduction
• Sound sculpture

References

• Anon. 2007. Untitled. The Wire 275-280 (Accessed 5 June 2011).
• Chaudron, André. n.d. "Williams Mix" (Accessed 9 July 2011).
• Collins, Nicolas. 2006. Handmade Electronic Music: The Art of Hardware Hacking. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97592-1 (pbk)
• Eimert, Herbert. 1957. “What is Electronic Music?” Die Reihe 1 [English edition] (“Electronic Music”): 1–10.
• Holmes, Thom (2008). "Early Synthesizers and Experimenters". Electronic and experimental music: technology, music, and culture (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415957818. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hCthQ-bec-QC&pg=PA156. Retrieved 2011-06-04. 
• Morawska-Büngeler, Marietta. 1988. Schwingende Elektronen: Eine Dokumentation über das Studio für Elektronische Musik des Westdeutschen Rundfunk in Köln 1951–1986. Cologne-Rodenkirchen: P.J. Tonger Musikverlag.
• Smalley, Denis. 1997. “Spectromorphology: Explaining Sound-Shapes.” Organised Sound 2, no. 2:107–26.
• Stockhausen, Karlheinz. 1996. “Electroacoustic Performance Practice.” Perspectives of New Music 34, no. 1 (Fall): 74-105.
• Ungeheuer, Elena. 1992. “Wie die elektronische Musik „erfunden” wurde…: Quellenstudie zu Werner Meyer-Epplers musikalische Entwurf zwischen 1949 und 1953.” Kölner Schriften zur Neuen Musik 2, edited by Johannes Fritsch and Dieter Kämper. Mainz: B. Schott’s Söhne. ISBN 3-7957-1891-0
• Wishart, Trevor. 1996. On Sonic Art. New and revised edition. Contemporary Music Studies 12. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers. ISBN 3-7186-5846-1 (cloth) ISBN 3-7186-5847-X (pbk) ISBN 3-7186-5848-8 (CD)
• Wright, Edward. 2010. "A Portfolio of Work Focusing on the Tensions Between Electroacoustic and Instrumental Music". PhD diss. Bangor: Bangor University.

Further reading

• Beecroft, Norma. 2009. “Electronic Music in Toronto and Canada in the Analogue Era.” eContact! 11.2 — Figures canadiennes (2) / Canadian Figures (2) (July 2009). Montréal: CEC.
• Chadabe, Joel. 1997. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-303231-0
• Emmerson, Simon (ed.). 1986. The Language of Electroacoustic Music. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-39759-2 (cased); ISBN 0-333-39760-6 (pbk)
• Emmerson, Simon (ed.). 2000. Music, Electronic Media and Culture. Aldershot (UK) and Burlington, Vermont (USA): Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-0109-9
• Gann, Kyle. 2000a. "It’s Sound, It’s Art, and Some Call It Music." New York Times (January 9)
• Gann, Kyle. 2000. "MUSIC; Electronic Music, Always Current.” New York Times (July 9).
• Griffiths, Paul. 1995. Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816578-1 (cloth) ISBN 0-19-816511-0 (pbk.)
• Heifetz, Robin Julian. 1989. On the Wires of Our Nerves: The Art of Electroacoustic Music. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses Inc. ISBN 0-8387-5155-5
• Kahn, Douglas. 2001. Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-61172-4
• Licata, Thomas (ed.). 2002. Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives. Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance, 0193-9041; no. 63. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-31420-9
• Manning, Peter. 2004. Electronic and Computer Music. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514484-8 (hardback) ISBN 0-19-517085-7 (pbk.)
• Roads, Curtis. 1996. The Computer Music Tutorial. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-18158-4 (cloth) ISBN 0-262-68082-3 (paper)

See also the “Electroacoustic Bibliography” published in eContact! 8.4 — Ressources éducatives / Educational Resources (Montréal: CEC) for an annotated “‘essential reading list’ for electroacoustics, including books, journals and other resources relating to electroacoustics”.

Key journals for electroacoustics and sound art

• Computer Music Journal. Published quarterly by MIT Press.
• eContact!. Freely available online, four themed issues published each year by the Canadian Electroacoustic Community.
• Organised Sound. Three themed issues published each year by De Montfort University (Leicester UK).

See also the “Electroacoustic Bibliography” published in eContact! 8.4 — Ressources éducatives / Educational Resources (Montréal: CEC) for an annotated list of journals publishing articles related to electroacoustics.