Canada–United States relations

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Canada–United States relations

Canada	United States

Relations between Canada and the United States span more than two centuries, marked by a shared British colonial heritage, conflict during the early years of the U.S., and the eventual development of one of the most successful international relationships in the modern world. The most serious breach in the relationship was the War of 1812, which saw an American invasion of then British North America and counter invasions from British-Canadian forces. The border was demilitarized after the war and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during the World Wars and continued throughout the Cold War, despite Canadian doubts about certain American policies. A high volume of trade and migration between the U.S. and Canada has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being overwhelmed by its neighbor, which is ten times larger in population, wealth and debt.^[1]

Canada and the United States are currently the world's largest trading partners, share the world's longest shared border,^[2] and have significant interoperability within the defense sphere. Modern difficulties have included repeated trade disputes (despite a continental trade agreement), environmental concerns, and debates over immigration and the movement of people across the shared border. While the foreign policies of the neighbors have been largely aligned for much of the post-war era, significant disputes have arisen, including over the Vietnam War, the status of Cuba, the Iraq War, and the War on Terrorism.

Contents 1 History 1.1 As part of the British Empire 1.2 Dominion status 1.3 Independence 1.4 Nixon shock 1971 2 Defence and international conflict 2.1 War in Afghanistan 2.2 2003 Invasion of Iraq 3 Trade 4 Arctic disputes 5 Environmental issues 6 Illicit drugs 7 Arar affair 8 Territorial disputes 9 Common memberships 10 The current state of relations 11 Quotations 12 Notes 13 See also 14 Further reading 15 External links

[edit] History

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[edit] As part of the British Empire

At the outset of the American Revolution, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded during the American Revolutionary War, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. The British advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777 a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity.^[3] After the war Canada became a refuge for about 70,000 Loyalists who wanted to leave the U.S. Among the original Loyalists, who were of many ethnic backgrounds, there were African Americans, some of whom were brought as slaves and remained slaves in Canada for the rest of their lives.^[4] In the following decades, more and more African American slaves continued to look north to British North America (Canada) as a land of freedom where they received welcome and lands.

The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war, called for the British to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. The British refused to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts, including Fort Detroit. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British imperial presence as a threat to republicanism in the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time.

Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812, when the Americans declared war on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure ("Impressment") of 6,000 American sailors, as well as severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France. The Americans were outgunned by more than 10 to 1 by the Royal Navy, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of American Indian resistance to the westward expansion of the United States, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. (The British policy recognized the Indians as Nations while the American policy pushed Indians off their lands.) The early strategy was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of forcing concessions from the British. As in 1775, many Americans hoped the Canadians would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were incompetent and were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Indians and militia. A major British invasion of New York in 1814 was poorly handled and the British retreated.

In later years, Canadians, who remain loyal to the Empire well into the 20th century, viewed the War of 1812 as a successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. A common theme in Canadian political rhetoric ever since has been the protection of Canadian culture from American influence and possible integration into the American political, cultural and economic realm.

[edit] Dominion status

Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy. Prior to Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. Strained relations with the United States continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense.

Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and over fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent.

Much more controversial was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the U.S. in 1903. At issue was the exact boundary between Alaska and Canada, specifically whether Canada would have a port near the present American town of Haines that would give access to the new Yukon goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and anti-British disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the U.S. paramount to those with Canada.^[5]

1907 saw a minor controversy over USS Nashville sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. Partly in response, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes.

Economic ties and migration had deepened by this era, but were not equal. In 1911 there were 49,000 US-born people in Canada and 1.21 million Canadian-born people in the US.

[edit] Independence

Canada finally achieved independence from Britain when it took control of its own diplomatic and military affairs in the 1920s. Its first ambassador to the U.S., Vincent Massey, was named in 1927. Relations with the U.S. were cordial, except in the matter of tariffs in the 1930-32 period of the Great Depression. In the 1930s, the United States Army War College developed hypothetical war plans for a possible war with Canada; they featured an invasion in War Plan Red; it was merely an academic exercise. Similarly, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 to counteract a U.S. invasion. Canadian defence was organized against an American invasion until the onset of World War II.

Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global superpower declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War.

In World War II the U.S. built large military bases in Newfoundland (then a British colony), and the business community there sought closer ties with the U.S. as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referendums. There was little demand in the U.S. for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the U.S. did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum.

[edit] Nixon shock 1971

The US had become Canada's largest market, and after the war the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the US so much that in 1971 when the US enacted the "Nixon Shock" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. This led in a large part to the articulation of Prime Minister Trudeau's "Third Option" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of Canada – US relations. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the "special relationship" between Canada and the US dead.^[6]

[edit] Defence and international conflict

The Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought along side the U.S. in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close.

U.S. defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, U.S. and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). There is also an active military exchange program between the two countries under which Canadian Forces personnel have been involved in Iraq.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into U.S. carrier battle groups.

[edit] War in Afghanistan

Canada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaida attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot accidentally bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint US-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing" his field tactical decision.^[7][8] Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force.^[9]

The Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC maintains a public relations web site named CanadianAlly.com, which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror".

The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict on the ground that it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations.

[edit] 2003 Invasion of Iraq

According to contemporary polls, the vast majority of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Canadian government, under current Prime Minister Stephen Harper, maintains a position with emphasis on UN authority. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal government of Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton),^[10] made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush doctrine, which linked these together in a "Global war on terror".

[edit] Trade

Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canadian–American Free Trade Agreement there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries.

With such a massive trading relationship, trade disputes between the two countries are frequent and inevitable. American officials have placed ongoing tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber despite losing various appeals placed by Canada in the NAFTA and WTO panels.^{[citation needed]} Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural "restrictions" on magazines and television (See CRTC, CBC, and National Film Board of Canada). Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11.

One ongoing and complex trade issue involves the importation of cheaper prescription drugs from Canada to the United States. Due to the Canadian government's price controls as part of their state-run medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by consumers in the unregulated U.S. market. While laws in the United States have been passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed their own legislation to allow the trade to continue. American drug companies—often supporters of political campaigns—have obviously come out against the practice.

According to a 2003 study commissioned by the Canadian Embassy in the United States, based on 2001 data, Canada–U.S. trade supported 5.2 million U.S. jobs.

U.S. State	U.S. Jobs Supported	Rank
Alabama	72,000	24
Alaska	13,000	48
Arizona	89,000	22
Arkansas	45,000	32
California	626,000	1
Colorado	93,000	21
Connecticut	67,000	27
Delaware	16,000	46
District of Columbia	29,000	38
Florida	289,000	4
Georgia	152,000	10
Hawaii	26,000	39
Idaho	23,000	43
Illinois	237,000	5
Indiana	112,000	14
Iowa	55,000	30
Kansas	51,000	31
Kentucky	69,000	26
Louisiana	73,000	23
Maine	24,000	41
Maryland	101,000	20
Massachusetts	134,000	13
Michigan	174,000	8
Minnesota	103,000	19
Mississippi	43,000	34
Missouri	108,000	16
Montana	16,000	45
Nebraska	36,000	36
Nevada	43,000	35
New Hampshire	24,000	42
New Jersey	153,000	9
New Mexico	30,000	37
New York	348,000	3
North Carolina	151,000	11
North Dakota	13,000	49
Ohio	212,000	7
Oklahoma	58,000	29
Oregon	63,000	28
Pennsylvania	219,000	6
Rhode Island	19,000	44
South Carolina	69,000	25
South Dakota	15,000	47
Tennessee	108,000	15
Texas	369,000	2
Utah	44,000	33
Vermont	12,000	50
Virginia	141,000	12
Washington	108,000	17
West Virginia	25,000	40
Wisconsin	103,000	18
Wyoming	9,000	51
Total	5,210,000

http://www.canadianembassy.org/2005map/2005_map_front.pdf http://www.canadianally.com

[edit] Arctic disputes

A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada’s assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission. In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada…. Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. In January 2006 David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.^[11] In August 2007, former US ambassador to Canada, Paul Cellucci, stated that in 2005 he informed his government that it should re-evaluate its assertion that the Northwest Passage is an international sea body, and should belong to Canada. His advice was rejected and in 2007 Bush and Harper took opposite positions.^[12]

[edit] Environmental issues

The two countries work closely to resolve trans-border environmental issues, an area of increasing importance in the bilateral relationship. A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling trans border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project. The two governments also consult semi-annually on trans border air pollution. Under the Air Quality Agreement of 1991, both countries have made substantial progress in coordinating and implementing their acid rain control programs and signed an annex on ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this trans border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans border pollution results from coal fired power stations, most of them located in the American Midwest.

Currently neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol, and has received criticism from environmental groups and from other governments for its climate change positions.

[edit] Illicit drugs

In 2003 the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond."^[13] However the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of marijuana laws for the foreseeable future. The Canadian government currently grows marijuana for medicinal purposes only in former copper mines.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Arar affair

On September 26, 2002, U.S. officials, acting upon a tip from Canadian law enforcement, detained Maher Arar on suspicion of terrorist links. Arar is a dual citizen of Canada and Syria and was traveling through New York as part of a trip from Tunisia to Canada.

Despite traveling on a Canadian passport, Arar was deported to Syria, his country of birth. He was imprisoned there for over a year and tortured repeatedly. The decision by U.S. officials to deport him to Syria, his imprisonment and torture there, and the extent of collaboration between U.S. and Canadian officials became a major political issue in Canada at the time.

Canadian officials have since said that Arar was not linked in any way to terrorism, and the Canadian prime minister, Stephen Harper, has issued a formal apology and a $10.5 million (CAD) settlement to Arar, who nonetheless remains on an American terrorist watchlist.

[edit] Territorial disputes

These include maritime boundary disputes: Dixon Entrance Beaufort Sea Strait of Juan de Fuca San Juan Islands Machias Seal Island and North Rock

Territorial land disputes: Aroostook War (Maine boundary) Alaska Boundary Dispute Pig War

and disputes over the international status of the: Northwest Passage Inside Passage

[edit] Common memberships

UKUSA Community
Australia Canada New Zealand United Kingdom United States of America

Canada and the United States both hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:

• Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
• Food and Agriculture Organization
• G-8
• G-10
• G-20 major economies
• International Chamber of Commerce
• International Development Association
• International Monetary Fund
• International Olympic Committee
• Interpol
• North American Free Trade Agreement
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization
• North American Aerospace Defense Command
• Organization of American States
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
• Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America
• UKUSA Community
• United Nations
• UNESCO
• World Health Organization
• World Trade Organization
• World Bank

[edit] The current state of relations

Shortly after being congratulated by U.S. President George W. Bush for his victory in February 2006, Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper rebuked U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with armed forces. Harper's first meeting with the U.S. President occurred at the end of March, 2006; and while little was achieved in the way of solid agreements, the trip was described in the media as signaling a trend of closer relations between the two nations.

Prime Minister Harper called and congratulated the then president-elect, Barack Obama, on his victory over John McCain, and he assured the president-elect that the two countries will become the greatest of allies. After he was officially inaugurated, on January 20th, 2009, as the 44th president of the United States of America, it was announced that Mr. Obama's first international trip would be to Canada, which took place on February 19, 2009. ^[14]

[edit] Quotations

• U.S. President John F. Kennedy: "Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder."^[15]

• Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau compared relations to "sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered is the beast, if I can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt."^[16]

• Canadian Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson: "These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence." - made during sensitive trade talks with US in 1893.^[17]

• Canadian Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), Macdonald said: "As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the ‘veiled treason’ which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance." - , Feb 3, 1891.^[18]

• Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, speaking in the Soviet Union in 1971, said that the overwhelming American presence posed "a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view."^[19]

• U.S. President Richard Nixon, during his visit to Ottawa in 1972, declared that the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States was dead. "It is time for us to recognize," he stated, "that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured."^[20]

• The Office of the Prime Minister of Canada in a released statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration said: "The United States remains Canada’s most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship."^[21]

• "We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbors on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada." President Johnson. Remarks at Expo '67, Montréal, May 25, 1967. ^[22]

• US President Barack Obama speaking in Ottawa, Canada at his first official international visit February 19, 2009: "I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally"^[23]

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Canadian and American economies compared
• Canadian and American politics compared
• Definitions of Canadian borders
• Foreign relations of Canada
• Foreign relations of the United States
• Etiquette in Canada and the United States
• Continental One Highway
• Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America

[edit] Further reading

• Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, "Anti-Americanism in Canada," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May, 1988), pp. 105–119 in JSTOR
• Stephen Clarkson, Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State (University of Toronto Press, 2002),
• J. L. Granatstein. Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997)
• J. L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s (1991)
• John W. Holmes. "Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada," International Organization, Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 in JSTOR
• Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations (1984, updated 1989)
• Graeme S. Mount and Edelgard Mahant, Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War (1999)
• Bruce Muirhead, "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock," American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol. 34, 2004 online edition
• Reginald C. Stuart. Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America (2007) excerpt and text search
• James Tagg. "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism," The History Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 3 (May, 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR
• C. C. Tansill, Canadian-American Relations, 1875-1911 (1943)
• John Herd Thompson and Stephen J. Randall, Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), 387pp
• Faces of War at Library and Archives Canada
• Engler, Yves The Black Book of Canadian Foreign Policy, Co-published: RED Publishing, Fernwood Publishing, April 2009, ISBN 978-1-55266-314-1 

[edit] External links

• Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.
• Embassy of the United States of America in Ottawa, Ontario
• Canadian Society of New York - formed in 1897 to foster a spirit of good will between Canada and the United States. For 106 years it held an annual gala to honor distinguished Canadians or Americans who devoted their careers to strengthening the ties between the two countries.
• Canadian Association of New York
• Congressional Research Service reports on Canada-U.S. Relations

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