User:Peter Mercator/Draft for new Mercator's Map page

This page is about the content of the Mercator 1569 World map. For details of the projection, see Mercator Projection. For biographical details, see Gerardus Mercator.
Gerardus Mercator

The Mercator world map of 1569 is entitled Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigantium Emendata which may be translated as "A new and more complete description of Earth corrected for the use of sailors". This title shows that Mercator aimed to present contemporary knowledge of the geography of the world and at the same time 'correct' the chart so that it was of use to sailors. The geographical details have been largely replaced by modern knowledge but the 'correction', whereby constant bearing sailing courses (rhumb lines) are mapped to straight lines on the map, i.e. the Mercator projection, was one of the most significant advances in the history of cartography, justifying the claim that "The master of Rupelmonde stands unsurpassed in the history of cartography since the time of Ptolemy".[1] The projection heralded a new era in in the evolution of navigation maps and charts and it is still their basis.

The map is inscribed with a great deal of text and the framed map legends (or cartouches) cover a wide variety of topics: a dedication to his patron and a copyright statement; discussions of rhumb lines, great circles and distances;comments on some of the major rivers; accounts of fictitious geography of the north pole and the southern continent. The full Latin texts and English translations of all the legends are given below. In addition to the framed legends there are many minor texts on the map: they cover such topics as the magnetic poles, the prime meridian, navigational features, minor geographical details, the voyages of discovery and myths of giants and cannibals. These minor texts are also given below.

A comparison with world maps before 1569 shows how closely Mercator drew on the work of other cartographers and his own previous works, but he declares (Legend 3) that he was also greatly indebted to many new charts prepared by Portugese and Spanish sailors in the portolan tradition. Earlier cartographers of world maps had largely ignored the more accurate practical charts of sailors, and vice-versa, but the age of discovery, from the closing decade of the fifteenth century, stimulated the integration of these two mapping traditions: Mercator's world map embodied both for the first time.

The 1569 Mercator map of the world. (This is a low resolution image. Links to higher resolution images are given below).

Extant copies and facsimiles

Mercator's 1569 edition was a large planisphere[2], i.e. a projection of the spherical Earth onto the plane. It was printed in eighteen separate sheets from copper plates almost certainly engraved by Mercator himself.getref Each sheet measures 33 by 40 cmgetref and with a border of 2 cm the complete map measures 202 by 124 cm. All sheets span a longitude of 60 degrees; the first row of 6 sheets cover latitudes 80N to 56N, the second row cover 56N to 16S and the third row cover 16S to 66S: this latitude division is not symmetric with respect to the equator thus giving rise to the later criticism of a Euro-centric projection.[3]

It is not known how many copies of the map were printed but it was possibly in the region of several hundred.[4] Despite this large print run, by the middle of the the nineteenth there was only one known copy, that at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France. A second copy was discovered in 1889 at the Stadt Bibliothek of Breslau (now Wroclaw) along with maps of Europe and Britain.getref These three maps were destroyed by fire in 1945 but fortunately copies had been made before then.[5] A third copy was found in a map collection Mappae Geographiae vetustae from the archives of the Amerbach family which had been gifted to the library of the University of Basel.[6] The only other complete copy was discovered at an auction sale in Luzern in in 1932 and is now in the map collection of the Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik in Rotterdam.[7] In addition to the complete copies there is a single page showing the North Atlantic in the Mercator atlas of Europe in the [British Library].[8] There are various paper reproductions of all four maps but only those at the original scale do justice to the detail and the artistry of Mercator's engraving: they are detailed below. There are online images of three versions of the map: the Breslau map is the exception.

Basel map

The Basel map is the cleanest of the three extant versions. It was photographically reproduced at a reduced scale by Wilhelm Kruecken in 1992; more recently (2011) he has produced a full scale and full sized (202 by 124 cm) reproduction of the map along with a five volume account (in German) covering all aspects of Mercator's work.[9] Medium resolution scans of the separate sheets and a composite of all 18 scans are accessible as follows.

 Links to the individual sheets   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18     Composite image of all 18 sheets. This is a 20MB file.

Paris map

The Paris copy came into the possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale from the estate of Julius Klaproth (1783–1835).[10] The map is uncoloured, partialy borderless and in poor condition due to repeated exhibitions during the nineteenth century. [11] It was reproduced by Edmé-François Jomard (1777–1862) between 1842 and 1862 as part of a collection of 21 facsimile maps. Very few copies of this facsimile are known.

The Bibliothèque Nationale has put a digital image of their copy into the public domain. The images do not correspond exactly with the 18 original sheets: they are in three rows of different heights with 5, 4, 4 images respectively. The zoomable images permit examination of small sections of the map in very great detail. These are the only online images at a high enough resolution to read the smallest text.

Breslau map

Immediately after its discovery in 1889 the Breslau map was described by Heyer[5] who initiated copies for the Berlin Geographical Society in 1891.[12] Forty years later, in 1931, a further 150 copies were issued by the Hydrographic Bureau.

Rotterdam map

This copy in the Maritime Museum Prins Hendrik at Rotterdam is in the form of an atlas constructed by Mercator for his friend and patron Werner von Gymnich [13] . It was made by Mercator in 1561 by dissecting and reassembling three copies of his original wall map to create coherent units such as continents or oceans or groups of legends.[14] The atlas is available online at Maritiem Digitaal by searching for 'Mercator 1569'. There are 17 non-blank coloured images which may be zoomed to a medium resolution (much lower than that of the French copy at the Bibliothèque Nationale). The individual map plates, excepting those covering legends only, are:

In 1962 a monochrome facsimile of this atlas was produced jointly by the curators of the Rotterdam museum and the cartographic journal Imago Mundi.[15] . The plates are accompanied with comprehensive bibliographic material, a commentary by van 't Hoff and English translations of the Latin text from the Hydrographics Review.[16]

World and regional maps before 1569

Some world maps of the Renaissance up to 1569 — various projections
 Claudius Ptolemy 1482
 Cantino 1502 (perhaps 1503)
 Waldseemüller 1508
 Pietro Coppo 1520
 1529 Diego Ribero
 Oronce Fine 1531
 Oronce Fine 1536
 Mercator 1538
 Jean Rotz 1542
 Ptolemy 1548
 1554 lopo homen
 Ortelius 1570[17]
Some regional maps before 1569
 1500 Juan de la Cosa
 Mercator Europe 1554?
 The Zeno map 1558
 Gutiérrez 1562

Principal features of the 1569 Mercator map

Mercator's projection

A sea chart of the Dieppe school with parallel meridians and uniformly spaced orthogonal parallels. c1543

In Legend 3 Mercator states that his first priority is "to spread on a plane the surface of the sphere in such a way that the positions of places shall correspond on all sides with each other, both in so far as true direction and distance are concerned and as correct longitudes and latitudes". He goes on to point out the deficiencies of previous projections,[18] particularly the distortion caused by the oblique incidence of parallels and meridians which gives rise to incorrect angles and shapes: therefore he adopts parallel meridians and orthogonal parallels. This is also a feature of sixteenth century plane charts (equirectangular projections) but they also have equally spaced parallels; in Legend 3 Mercator also emphasizes the distortion that this gives rise to. In particular, the straight lines emanating from the compass roses are not rhumb lines so that they do not give a true bearing. Nor was it straightforward to calculate the sailing distances on these charts. Mariners were aware of these problems and had evolved rules of thumbgetref to enhance the accuracy of their navigation.

Mercator presents his remedy for these problems: "we have progressively increased the the degrees of latitude towards each pole in proportion to the lengthenings of the parallels with reference to the equator". The resulting variation of the latitude scale is shown on the meridian at 350E of his map. Later, Edward Wright and others showed how this statement of Mercator could be turned into a precise mathematical problem whose solution permitted the calculation of the latitude scale, but their methods has not been developed at the time of Mercator.[19] All these methods hinge on the observation that the radius, and hence circumference, of a parallel of latitude is proportional to the cosine of the latitude, unity at the equator and zero at the poles. The length of a parallel, and hence the spacing of the parallels, must therefore be increased by a factor equal to the reciprocal of the cosine (i.e. the secant) of the latitude.

Mercator left no explanation of his own methods but, as long ago as 1541, he had demonstrated that he understood how to draw rhumb lines on a globe.getref He left no documentation of his method but it has been suggested that he drew the rhumbs by using a set of metal templates for the seven principal compass points within each quadrant.getref Starting at the equator draw a short straight line segment, at say 67.5 degrees (east by northeast). Continue as far as a meridian separated by only two or three degrees of longitude and mark the crossing point. Move the template to that point and repeat the process; since the meridians have converged a little the line will bend up a little generating a rhumb which describes a spiral on the sphere. The latitude and longitude of selected points on the rhumb could have then been transferred to the chart and the latitude scale of the chart adjusted so that the rhumb becomes a straight line. There has been no shortage of proposed methods for the construction. For example Hollander analyzed 14 such hypotheses and concluded that Mercator may have used a judicious mix of mechanical transference and numerical interpolations.[20] However he proceeded, Mercator achieved a fairly accurate, but not perfect, latitude scale.getref

Since the parallels shrink to zero length as they approach the pole they have to be stretched by larger and larger amounts and correspondingly the parallel spacing increases in the same ratio. Mercator concludes that "the chart cannot be extended as far as the pole, for the degrees of latitude would finally attain infinity" — Legend 6. (The reciprocal of the cosine of the latitude become infinite). He therefore uses a completely different projection for the inset map of the north polar regions — an equidistant azimuthal projection. This was another innovation for sixteenth century charts.

It took many years for Mercator's projection to gain wider acceptance. The following gallery shows the first maps in which it was employed. General acceptance only came with the publication of the French sea atlas "Le Neptune Francois"find_date at the end of the seventeenth century: all the maps in this widely disseminated volume were on the Mercator projection.[21]

The first maps on the Mercator projection
 1597 Hondius; The Christian Knight Map
 Wright Azores sailing map 1599
 Wright–Molyneux world map 1599
 Blaeu atlas 1606 and later editions

Distances and the Organum Directorium

In Legend 12 Mercator makes careful distinction between great circles (plaga) and rhumb lines (directio) and he points out that the rhumb between two given points is always longer than the great circle distance, the latter being the shortest distance between the points. However, he stresses that over short distances (which he quantifies) the difference may be negligible and a calculation of the rhumb distance may be adequate and more relevant since it is the sailing distance on a constant bearing. He gives the details of such a calculation in a rather cumbersome fashion in Legend 12 but in Legend 10 he says that the same method can be applied more readily with the Organum Directorium (the Diagram of Courses, sheet 18) shown annotated here. Only dividers were used in these constructions but the original maps had a thread attached at the origin of each compass rose. Its use is partially explained in Legend 10.

Organum

To illustrate his method take A at (20N,33E) and B at (65N,75E). Plot the latitude of A on the left hand scale and plot B with the appropriate relative latitude and longitude. Measure the azimuth α, the angle MAB: it can be read off the compass scale by constructing OP parallel to AB; for this example it is 34 degrees. Draw a line OQ through the origin of the compass rose such that the angle between OQ and the equator is equal to the azimuth angle α. Now find the point N on the equator which is such that the number of equatorial degrees in ON is numerically equal to the latitude difference (45 degrees for AM on the unequal scale). Draw the perpendicular through N and let it meet OQ at D. Find the point E such that OE = OD, here approximately 54 degrees. This is a measure of the rhumb line distance between the points on the sphere corresponding to A and B on the spherical Earth. Since each degree on the equator correspond to 60 nautical miles the sailing distance is 3240 nautical miles for this example. If B is in the second quadrant with respect to A then the upper rose is used and if B is west of A then the longitude separation is simply reversed. Mercator also gives a refined method which is useful for small azimuths.

The above method is explained in Legend 12 by using compass roses on the equator and it is only in Legend 10 that he introduces the Organum Directorium and also addresses the inverse problems: given the initial point and the direction and distance of the second find the latitude and longitude of the second.

Mercator's construction is simply an evaluation of the rhumb line distance in terms of the latitude difference and the azimuth as[22]

$s=(\phi_B-\phi_A)\sec\alpha.$

If the latitude difference is expressed in arc minutes then the distance is in nautical miles.

In later life Mercator commented that the principles of his map had not been understood by mariners but he admitted to his friend and biographer, Walter Ghym, that the map lacked a sufficiently clear detailed explanation of its use.[23]. The intention expressed in the last sentence of Legend 10, that he would give more information in a future 'Geographia', was never realised.

Prime meridian and magnetic pole

Two posible magnetic poles

In Legend 5 Mercator argues that the Prime Meridian should be identified with that on which the magnetic declination is zero, namely the meridian through the Cape Verde islands, or alternatively that through the island of Corvo in the Azores. (He cites the varying opinions of the Dieppe mariners). The prime meridian is labelled as 360 and the remainder are labelled every ten degrees eastwards. He further claims that he has used information on the geographical variation of declination to calculate the position of the (single) magnetic pole corresponding to the two possible prime meridians: they are shown on Sheet6 with appropriate text. (For good measure he repeats one of these poles on Sheet 1 to emphasize the overlap of the right and left edges of his map; see text). He does not show a position for a south magnetic pole and presumably he did not believe in the existence of such. The model of the Earth as a magnetic dipole did not arise until the end of the seventeenth century getref and between 1500 and that era the number of magnetic poles was a matter for speculation, variously 1, 2 or 4.[24] Later, he accepted that magnetic declination changed in time, thus invalidating his position that the prime meridian could be on these grounds.

Geography

In his introduction to the Imago Mundi facsimile edition t' Hoff gives lists of world maps and regional maps that Mercator may well have seen, or even possessed by the 1560s.[25] A more complete illustrated list of world maps of that time may be compiled from the comprehensive survey of Shirley. Comparisons with his own map show how freely he borrowed from these maps and from his own 1538 world map[26] and his 1541 globe.getref

A 1550 portolan of the eastern meridian showing the high quality of coastal mapping.

In addition to published maps and manuscripts Mercator declares (Legend 3) that he was greatly indebted to many new charts prepared by Portugese and Spanish sailors in the portolan traditions. "It is from an equitable conciliation of all these documents that the dimensions and situations of the land are given here as accurately as possible". Earlier cartographers of world maps had largely ignored the more accurate practical charts of sailors, and vice-versa, but the age of discovery, from the closing decades of the fifteenth century, brought together these two traditions in the person of Mercator.[27]

There are great discrepancies with the modern atlas. Europe, the coast of Africa and the eastern coast of the Americas are well covered but beyond that the anomalies increase with distance. For example the spectacular bulge on the western coast of South America , replaced the more accurate representation of earlier maps: it disappears for good with the Blaeu map of 1606.[28].

Frisland, a phantom island (as represented on the 1595 Mercator atlas

The phantom islands of Frisland and Brasil in the North Atlantic persist in the maps of the period even though they were in waters readily accessed by European sailors. Mercator accepted current beliefs in the existence of a large Southern continent (Terra Australis) — beliefs which would prevail until the discovery of the open seas south of Cape Horn and the circumnavigation of Australia. He does show a Strait of Anian between Asia and the Americas as well as NW and NE passages to the spice islands of the East: this he justifies on his studies of the ancient texts detailed in Legend 3 for as yet these were uneplored regions.

The north polar regions as portrayed in the 1595 atlas.

The bizarre representation of the geography of the north polar regions in the inset is discussed in detail in Legend 6 and in the minor texts of sheet 13. Mercator accepts that a fourteenth century English friar had employed magic arts to survey the septentrional regions. The four channels carry the sea towards the pole where it disappears into an abyss with great force.

Beyond Europe the interiors of the continents were unknown but Mercator struggled to combine the scattered data at his disposal into a harmonious whole in the map legends which speculate on the Asian Prester John and the courses of the Ganges, Nile and Niger. For his geographical information Mercator quotes (Legends 3,4, 8, 11, 14) classic authors such as Pliny the Elder, Pomponius Mela, Ptolemy, and earlier travellers such as Marco Polo but, as the principal geographer of his time, he would have undoubtedly have been in touch with contemporary travellers.

Decorative features

High resolution details
 musicians translation map sheet
 giants translation map sheet
 cannibals translation map sheet
 Poseidon? map sheet
 sea monster map sheet
 animal translation map sheet

The ornate border of the map shows the 32 points of the compass. The cardinal appoints appear in various forms: west is Zephyrus, Occides, West, Ponente, Oeste; east is Subsola, Oriens, Oost, Levante, Este; south is Auster, Meridio, Zuya Ostre, Sid; north is Boreas, Septentrio, Nord, tramontana. All of the other 28 points are written only in Dutch, confirming Mercator's wish that his map would be put to practical use by mariners.

Within the map Mercator embellishes the open seas with fleets of ships, sea creatures, of which one is a dolphin, and a striking god-like figure which may be Triton. The unknown continental interiors are remarkably devoid of creatures and Mercator is for the most part content to create speculative mountain ranges, rivers and cities. The only land animal, in South America, is shown as "having under the belly a receptacle in which it keeps its young warm and takes them out but to suckle them". ( (40S,295E) with text.) He also shows cannibals but this may have been true. The giants shown in Patagonia may also be founded in truth: the reaction of Spanish sailors of slight stature on confronting a tribe of natives who were well over six foot in height. These images of south Americans are almost direct copies of similar figures on the [[#World and regional maps before 1569:map] of Diego Gutierrez.[29] The are three other images of figures: Prester John in Ethiopia (10N,60E); a tiny vignette of two 'flute' players (72N,170E) with (See text; the lady Zororaia who is she? at (60N,110E).

The italic script used on the map was largely developed by Mercator himself. He was a great advocate of its use, insisting that it was much clearer than any other. He published an influential book, Literarum latinorum, showing the italic hand it should be executed.[30]

Texts of the map

 Links to the legend texts   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15       Minor texts

Summary of the legends

• Legend 1 The dedication to his patron, the Duke of Cleves.
• Legend 2 A eulogy, in latin hexameters, expressig his good fortune at living in Cleves after having fled from persecution by the Inquisition.
• Legend 3 Inspectori Salutem: greetings to the reader. Mercator sets forth three motivations for his map: (1) an accurate representation of locations and distances corrected for the use of sailors by the adoption of a new projection; (2) an accurate representation of countries and their shapes; (3) to stay true to the understanding of ancient writers.
• Legend 4 The Asian Prester John and the origin of the Tartars.
• Legend 5 The prime meridian and how a logical choice could be made on the basis of a study of magnetic declination.
• Legend 6 The north polar (septentrional) regions.
• Legend 7 Magellan's circumnavigation of the world.
• Legend 8 The Niger and Nile rivers and their possible linkage.
• Legend 9 Vasco de Gama.
• Legend 10 The use of the Organum Directorium, the Diagram of courses, for the measurement of rhumb line distance.
• Legend 11 The southern continent (Terra Australis]] and its relation to Java.
• Legend 12 The distinction between great circles and rhumb lines and the measurement of the latter.
• Legend 13 The 1493 papal Bull arbitrating on the division between Spanish and Portugese spheres of influence.
• Legend 14 The Ganges and the geography of south-east Asia.
• Legend 15 The copyright notice.

Legend texts

The following literal translations are taken, with permission of the International Hydrographics Board, from the Hydrographics Reviewgetref. The latin text differs from that of Mercator in using modern spelling. Punctuation has been modified or added. Paragraph breaks have been added where required.

Minor texts

 Sheet 1 75N,182E Polus magnetis. Hunc altero fine tabulae in sua latitudine repetitum vides, quemadmodum et reliquas descriptiones extremitates, quae hoc tabulae latus finiunt, quod ideo factum est ut utriusque termini ad alterum continuato clarius oculis subjecta esset. Magnetic Pole. Ye see it repeated at the other end of the chart in the proper latitude as also the other extremities of the representation which terminate at this side of the chart; this was done in order that the continuity of each of the two ends with the other shall more clearly be set before your eyes. LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 2 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 3 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 4 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 5 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 6 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 7 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 9 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 11 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 12 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 13 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION Oceanus 19 ostiis inter has insulas irrumpens 4 euripos facit quibus indesinenter sub septentrionem fertur, atque ibi in viscera terrae absorbetur. Rupes quae polo est ambitum circiter 33 leucarum habet. The ocean breaking through by 19 passages between these isles forms four arms of the sea by which, without cease, it is carried northward there being absorbed into the bowels of the Earth. The rock which is at the pole has a circumference of about 33 leagues. LOCATION Hic euripus 5 habet ostia et propter angustiam ac celerem fluxum nunquam This arm of the sea has five passages and, on account of its straitness and of the speed of the current it never freezes. LOCATION Hic euripus 3 ingreditur ostiis et quotannis at 3 circiter menses congelatus manet, latitudinem habet 37 leucarum. This arm of the sea enters by three passages and yearly remains frozen about 3 months; it has a width of 37 leagues. LOCATION Pygmae hic habitant 4 ad summum pedes longi, quaemadmodum illi quos in Gronlandia Screlingers vocant. Here live pygmies whose length is 4 feet, as are also those who are called Screlingers in Greenland. LOCATION Haec insula optima est et saluberrima totius septentrionis. This isle is the best and most salubrious of the whole Septentrion. Sheet 14 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 15 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 16 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 17 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH Sheet 18 LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH LOCATION LATIN ENGLISH

Notes

1. ^ Nordenskiöld Facsimile Atlas, p.23
2. ^ Planisphere here means a rendering of the sphere onto the plane. It has no relation to the star charts as described in the article planisphere.
3. ^ Monmonier, Chapter 10 and notes at page 200.
4. ^ van Nouhuys p.237 . Nouhuys claims that the records of the Plantin Press show that they sold 69 copies of the Mercator 1538 world map in the autumn of 1567 alone and presumably many hundreds in the preceding thirty years. Yet only one copy is known at present — in the Geographical Society of New York. Undoubtedly hundreds of copies of the 1569 map were distributed over the world by Plantin and others.
5. ^ a b Heyer, A. Drei Karten–Mercator in der Breslauer Stadt-Bibliotek. Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Geographie herausgegeben von J.I.Kettler, vol VII (1890), pp. 379, 474, 507.
6. ^ van 't Hoff (1961) , page 40.
7. ^ van 't Hoff (1961), p.19
8. ^ Mercator 1570 atlas, Plate 14
9. ^ The publications of Wilhelm Krucken are available from the home page of his web site at Ad maiorem Gerardi Mercatoris gloriam.
10. ^ van 't Hoff (1961) , page 40.
11. ^ van 't Hoff (1961) , page 40.
12. ^ Heyer, A. Drei Karten von Europa, Britische Inseln, Weltkarte, herausgegeben von der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. Berlin 1891.
13. ^ van 't Hoff (1961), p.19
14. ^ Monmonier Figure 4.2, page 51
15. ^ van 't Hoff (1961),
16. ^ "Text and translations of the legends of the original chart of the world by Gerhard Mercator issued in 1569.". Hydrographics review 9/2: 7–45.
17. ^ The Ortelius map was published in 1570 but it was known to Mercator from about 1556getref
18. ^ Some of the projections used in the period before 1569 are shown in the gallery. They are discussed in Snyder (Flattening the Earth Chapter 1 ) and also in his article in the History of Cartography.
19. ^ Monmonier, Chapter 5 and notes at page 191.
20. ^ Hollander, Raymond d'. (2005) Loxodromie et projection de Mercator. Published by the Institut OceÌanographique (Paris). ISBN 9782903581312.
21. ^ Le Neptune François ou receuil des cartes marines. Levées et gravépar ordre exprés du roy. Pour l'usage de ses armées de mer. A Paris, chez Hubert Jaillot originally by Alexis-Hubert Jaillot, 1632–1712. Pirated by the Mortier brothers in Amsterdam
22. ^ Osborne, P (2008)The Mercator Projections (Chapter 2)
23. ^ van 't Hoff
24. ^ van Nouhuys, p.239
25. ^ van 't Hoff Appendices F, G.
26. ^ Nordenskiöld Facsimile Atlas
27. ^ Penrose, B. 1932. Travel and discovery in the Renaissance, 1420–1620. Cambridge, mass.
28. ^ Blaeu (1606)
29. ^ The Gutierez map of 1562 is available on several web sites: Decorative maps; The Library of Congress
30. ^ van 't Hoff p.40 The latin text and an English translation may be found in Osley.

Bibliography

• Bagrow, Leo (1985), History of cartography [Geschichte der Kartographie] (2nd ed.), Chicago.
• Ghym, Walter (15??), Vita Mercatoris Translated in Osley. (Surname also spelled as Ghim)
• Monmonier, Mark [Stephen] (2004), Rhumb Lines and Map Wars: A Social History of the Mercator Projection, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-53431-6 (hbk.) Check |isbn= value (help)
• Osley, A. S. (1969), Mercator, a monograph on the lettering of maps, etc. in the 16th century Netherlands, with a facsimile and translation of his treatise on the italic hand [’Literarum latinarum’] and a translation of Ghim’s ’Vita Mercatoris, Watson-Guptill (New York ) and Faber (London)
• van 't Hoff, Bert and editors of Imago Mundi (1961), Gerard Mercator's map of the world (1569) in the form of an atlas in the Maritime Museum Prins Hendrik at Rotterdam, reproduced on the scale of the original, Rotterdam/'s-Gravenhage: van Het Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik. Publication No. 6. Supplement no. 2 to Imago Mundi.
• van Nouhuys, J. W. (1933), Hydrographic Review 10/2
• "Text and translations of the legends of the original chart of the world by Gerhard Mercator issued in 1569.". Hydrographics review 9/2: 7–45.
• Van Raemdonck, J (1869), Gerard Mercator, Sa vie et ses oeuvres, St Niklaas
• Snyder, John P. (1993), Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections., University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-76747-7. Check |isbn= value (help)
• Snyder in History of Cartography getref
• Karrow getref
• History of Cartography getref

Map bibliography

This bibliography gives lists of world and regional maps, on various projections, that Mercator may have used in the preparation of his world map. In addition there are examples of maps of the succeeding decades which did or did not use the Mercator projection. Where possible references are given to printed or online reproductions.

Atlases and map collections

• Barron, Roderick (1989), Decorative Maps, Londo: Studio Editions, ISBN 1851702989
• Baynton-Williams, Ashley and Miles (2006), New Worlds: maps from the age of discovery, Quercus, ISBN 1905204809 Unknown parameter |Location= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)
• Mercator (1570), Atlas of Europe. There are two online versions in the British Library: the 'Turning the pages' version at[1] and an annotated accessible copy at[2].
• Nordenskiöld, Adolf Eric (1897), Periplus : An essay on the early history of charts and sailing-direction translated from the Swedish original by Francis A. Bather. With reproductions of old charts and maps., Stockholm
• Nordenskiöld, Adolf Eric (1889), Facsimile-atlas till kartografiens äldsta historia English [Facsimile-atlas to the early history of cartography with reproductions of the most important maps printed in the XV and XVI centuries translated from the Swedish by J. A. Ekelöf and C. R. Markham], Kraus Reprint Corporation and New York Dover Publications London Constable 1973, ISBN 0486229645
• Shirley, Rodney W. (2001), The mapping of the world : early printed world maps 1472–1700 (4 ed.), Riverside, Conn.: Early World Press, ISBN 0970351801
• Ptolemy, Claudius (1990), Cosmography, Leicester: Magna, ISBN 1854221035. The maps of the Codex Lat V F.32, a 15th-century manuscript in the National Library, Naples.

World maps before 1569

• Germanus, Henricus Martellus (1489+), Missing or empty |title= (help) In Nordenskiöld Periplus, p.123 , and Bagrow, table 40.
• de la Cosa, Juan (1500), Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Periplus, plate XLIII.
• Ribero, Diego, Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld plates XLVIII–XLIX .
• Apianus, Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Periplus, plate XLIV,
• Gastaldi, Giacomo, Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Periplus, p.165, also in Shirley plate 92 (entry 107).
• Gastaldi, Giacomo (1546), Universale Shirley plate 72 (entry 85).
• Cabot, Sebastian (1544), World Map Shirley plate 69 (entry 81).
• Ruys, Johann, Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Facsimile Atlas, plate XXXII.
• Finnaeus, Orontius, Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Facsimile Atlas, plate XLI.
• Mercator, Gerardus (1538), Missing or empty |title= (help) Nordenskiöld Facsimile Atlas, plate XLIII. Shirley plate 79 (entries 74 and 91).
• Ortelius, Abraham (1564), Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Shirley plate 97 (entry 114).

Regional maps before 1569

• Mercator, Gerardus (1554), Map of Europe.
• Gastaldi (1561), Map of Asia Nordenskiöld Periplus, plates LIV, LV, LVI.
• Gastaldi (1564), Map of Africa Nordenskiöld Periplus, plates XLVI.
• Gutierez (1562), Map of South America Bagrow, Plate 86.

World maps using the Mercator projection after 1569

• Hondius (1596), Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Hondius (1608), Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Wright1599, Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Quadt (1608), Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Dudley (1646), Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Blaeu, William Janzoon (1606), Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographiva Tabula. Printed in New Worlds, page 59

World maps not using the Mercator projection after 1569

• Ortelius, Abraham (1570), Typus Orbis Terrarum [[#CITEREF|]]

below

more

projections

oval (Agnese 1540, Bordone 1528, Ortelius 1570; cordiform (Werner 1514 double cordiform Fine 1531, Mercator 1538,

[4]

[5]

uni minnesota

[6] oronce

[7] de Jode 1593 polar projections

Gutierez map of 1562

http://www.decorative-maps.com/map-analysis-gutierrez-americae.html

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/gutierrz.html