Vayikra (parsha)

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Vayikra, VaYikra, Va-yikra, or Vayyiqra (וַיִּקְרָא — Hebrew for "and He called,” the first word in the parshah) is the 24th weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the first in the book of Leviticus. It constitutes Leviticus 1:1–5:26. Jews in the Diaspora read it the 23rd or 24th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in March or early April.

The parshah lays out the laws of sacrifices (קָרְבָּן, korban).

The Sacrifice of the Old Covenant (painting by Peter Paul Rubens)

Contents

[edit] Summary

Bull Oostvaardersplassen 2.JPG
Male goat.jpg
Turtle dove.jpg

God called to Moses from the Tabernacle and told him the laws of the sacrifices. (Leviticus 1:1.)

  • Burnt offerings (עֹלָה, olah) could be bulls, rams or male goats, or turtle doves or pigeons, which the priest burned completely on wood on the altar. (Leviticus 1:3–17.)
  • Meal offerings (מִנְחָה, minchah) were of choice flour with oil, from which priest would remove a token portion to burn on the altar, and the remainder the priests could eat. (Leviticus 2:1–10.) Meal offerings could not contain leaven or honey, and had to be seasoned with salt. (Leviticus 2:11–13.) Meal offerings of first fruits had to be new ears parched with fire, grits of the fresh grain. (Leviticus 2:14.)
  • Sacrifices of well-being (שְׁלָמִים, shelamim) could be male or a female cattle, sheep, or goats, from which the priest would dash the blood on the sides of the altar and burn the fat around the entrails, the kidneys, and the protuberance on the liver on the altar. (Leviticus 3:1–16.)
  • Sin offerings (חַטָּאת, chatat) for unwitting sin by the High Priest or the community required sacrificing a bull, sprinkling its blood in the Tent of Meeting, burning on the altar the fat around the entrails, the kidneys, and the protuberance on the liver, and burning the rest of the bull on an ash heap outside the camp. (Leviticus 4:1–21.) Guilt offerings for unwitting sin by a chieftain required sacrificing a male goat, putting some of its blood on the horns of the altar, and burning its fat. (Leviticus 4:22–26.) Guilt offerings for unwitting sin by a lay person required sacrificing a female goat, putting some of its blood on the horns of the altar, and burning its fat. (Leviticus 4:27–31.)
  • Sin offerings were required for cases when a person:
    • was able to testify but did not give information,
    • touched any unclean thing,
    • touched human uncleanness, or
    • uttered an oath and forgot. (Leviticus 5:1–4.)
In such cases, the person had to confess and sacrifice a female sheep or goat; or if he could not afford a sheep, two turtledoves or two pigeons; or if he could not afford the birds, choice flour without oil. (Leviticus 5:5–13.)
  • Guilt offerings (אָשָׁם, asham) were required when a person was unwittingly remiss about any sacred thing. (Leviticus 5:14–15.) In such cases, the person had to sacrifice a ram and make restitution plus 20 percent to the priest. (Leviticus 5:16.) Similarly, guilt offerings were required when a person dealt deceitfully in the matter of a deposit or a pledge, through robbery, by fraud, or by finding something lost and lying about it. (Leviticus 5:20–22.) In such cases, the person had to sacrifice a ram and make restitution plus 20 percent to the victim. (Leviticus 5:22–26.)

[edit] In inner-Biblical interpretation

[edit] Leviticus chapter 1

In Psalms 50, God clarifies the purpose of sacrifices. God states that correct sacrifice was not the taking of a bull out of the sacrificer’s house, nor the taking of a goat out of the sacrificer’s fold, to convey to God, for every animal was already God’s possession. (Psalm 50:9–11.) The sacrificer was not to think of the sacrifice as food for God, for God neither hungers nor eats. (Psalm 50:12–13.) Rather, the worshiper was to offer to God the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call upon God in times of trouble, and thus God would deliver the worshiper and the worshiper would honor God. (Psalm 50:14–15.)

[edit] In classical rabbinic interpretation

[edit] Leviticus chapter 1

Rav Assi said that young children began their Torah studies with Leviticus and not with Genesis because young children are pure, and the sacrifices explained in Leviticus are pure, so the pure studied the pure. (Leviticus Rabbah 7:3.)

Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai taught that, generally speaking, the Torah required a burnt offering only as expiation for sinful meditation of the heart. (Leviticus Rabbah 7:3.) And a Midrash taught that if people repent, it is accounted as if they had gone up to Jerusalem, built the Temple and the altars, and offered all the sacrifices ordained in the Torah. (Leviticus Rabbah 7:2.) And Rabbi Aha said in the name of Rabbi Hanina ben Pappa that God accounts studying the sacrifices as equal to offering them. (Leviticus Rabbah 7:3.)

Rabbi Leazar ben Menahem taught that the opening words of Leviticus 1:1, “And the Lord called,” indicated God’s proximity to Moses. Rabbi Leazar taught that the words of Proverbs 15:29, “The Lord is far from the wicked,” refer to the prophets of other nations. But the continuation of Proverbs 15:29, “He hears the prayer of the righteous,” refers to the prophets of Israel. God appears to nations other that Israel only as one who comes from a distance, as Isaiah 39:3 says, “They came from a far country to me.” But in connection with the prophets of Israel, Genesis 18:1 says, “And the Lord appeared,” and Leviticus 1:1 says, “And the Lord called,” implying from the immediate vicinity. Rabbi Haninah compared the difference between the prophets of Israel and the prophets of other nations to a king who was with his friend in a chamber (separated by a curtain). Whenever the king desired to speak to his friend, he folded up the curtain and spoke to him. (But God speaks to the prophets of other nations without folding back the curtain.) The Rabbis compared it to a king who has a wife and a concubine; to his wife he goes openly, but to his concubine he repairs with stealth. Similarly, God appears to non-Jews only at night, as Numbers 22:20 says, “And God came to Balaam at night,” and Genesis 31:24 says, “And God came to Laban the Aramean in a dream of the night.” (Genesis Rabbah 52:5.)

sacrifices (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern)

The Sifra cited Leviticus 1:1 along with Exodus 3:4 for the proposition that whenever God spoke to Moses, God first called out to him. (Sifra 1:1.) And the Sifra deduced from God’s calling “to him” in Leviticus 1:1 that God meant to speak to Moses alone, to the exclusion of even Aaron. Rabbi Judah ben Betera noted that God spoke to Moses and Aaron together in 13 passages, and to Moses alone in 13 passages, teaching that in these latter passages, Moses was then to inform Aaron. And Rabbi Jose the Galilean deduced from the use of “at the tent of meeting” in Leviticus 1:1 that every time that God spoke to Moses at the tent of meeting, God spoke to Moses alone, to the exclusion of Aaron. (Sifra 2:1.) Rabbi Tanchum ben Chanilai found in God’s calling to Moses alone in Leviticus 1:1 proof that a burden that is too heavy for 600,000 — hearing the voice of God (see Deuteronomy 5:22) — can nonetheless be light for one. (Leviticus Rabbah 1:1, 4.) And the Sifra also deduced from Leviticus 1:1 that God’s voice, perhaps because it was subdued, resonated only within the tent itself. (Sifra 2:2.)

Rabbi Tanhuma said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Korchah that Leviticus 1:1 demonstrated that out of the 10 different names that Scripture applied to Moses, God always addressed Moses by his given name. (Leviticus Rabbah 1:3.)

The Mishnah deduced from Leviticus 1:3 that the offerer only effected atonement if the offerer brought the offering voluntarily, but if the offerer pledged to bring a burnt offering, the Mishnah taught that they compelled the offerer to state that the offering was voluntary. The Rabbis in a Baraita read the words “he shall offer it” in Leviticus 1:3 to teach that the congregation needed to compel the offerer to fulfill the offerer’s obligation. (Mishnah Arakhin 5:6; Babylonian Talmud Arakhin 21a.)

The Gemara interpreted the requirement of Leviticus 1:5 that the priest “dash the blood round about against the altar” to teach that the priest threw the blood against two opposing corners of the altar, thus hitting all four sides of the altar and satisfying the requirement to dash the altar “round about.” (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 53b.)

Priestly Duties (1695 woodcut by Johann Christoph Weigel)

Rabbi Eliezer (or some say Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob) taught that Nadab and Abihu died in Leviticus 10:2 only because they gave a legal decision interpreting Leviticus 1:7 in the presence of their Master Moses. Even though Leviticus 9:24 reports that “fire came forth from before the Lord and consumed the burnt-offering and the fat on the altar,” Nadab and Abihu deduced from the command of Leviticus 1:7 that “the sons of Aaron the priest shall put fire upon the altar” that the priests still had a religious duty to bring some ordinary fire to the altar, as well. (Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 63a.)

The Mishnah taught that the priest’s obligation in Leviticus 1:9 to offer the fats and other sacrificial pieces persisted until dawn. (Mishnah Berakhot 1:1; Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 2a.)

The Sifra deduced from Leviticus 1:10 that God occasionally began freestanding statements to Moses so as to allow Moses a pause to collect his thoughts. The Sifra generalized from this example that it was all the more appropriate for ordinary people to speak deliberately in conversation with other people. (Sifra 1:3.)

Tractate Zevachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the law of animal sacrifices in Leviticus 1–5. (Mishnah Zevachim 1:1–14:10; Tosefta Zevachim 1:1–13:20; Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 2a–120b.)

Tractate Kinnim in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in Leviticus 1:14, 5:7, 12:6–8, 14:22, and 15:29; and Numbers 6:10. (Mishnah Kinnim 1:1–3:6.)

[edit] Leviticus chapter 2

Tractate Menachot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud interpreted the law of meal offerings in Leviticus 2. (Mishnah Menachot 1:1–13:11; Tosefta Menachot 1:1–13:23; Babylonian Talmud Menachot 2a–110a.)

the altar of the tabernacle (illustration from Philip Y. Pendleton. Standard Eclectic Commentary. Cincinnati: Standard Publishing Co., 1901.)

[edit] Leviticus chapter 3

The Gemara deduced from the words “And if his offering be a sacrifice of peace-offerings” in Leviticus 3:1 that for an offering to be effective, one needed to slaughter the sacrifice for the sake of its being a peace-offering. (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 4a.)

Rabbi Judah taught that whoever brought a peace-offering brought peace to the world. Rabbi Simeon taught that they are called “peace-offerings” because all are at peace, each sharing in them. The blood and the limbs were for the altar, the breast and the thigh for the priests, and the hide and the meat for the owner. (Sifra 28:1.)

Rabbi Simeon interpreted the term “peace-offering” (שְׁלָמִים, shelamim) in Leviticus 3:1 and after to indicate that a person could bring the offering only when “whole” (שָׁלֵם, shalem), and thus not when one was in the first stage of mourning after the death of a close relative. (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 99b; Sifra 28:1:3; Leviticus Rabbah 9:8.)

High Priest Offering a Sacrifice of a Goat (illustration from Henry Davenport Northrop. Treasures of the Bible. International Pub. Co., 1894.)

Interpreting the words “And he shall . . . kill it at the door of the tent of meeting” in Leviticus 3:2, Rav Judah deduced in the name of Samuel that the priest had to kill the sacrifice when the gate was open, not when the gate was closed, and thus that peace-offerings slain before the doors of the Temple were opened were invalid. (Babylonian Talmud Yoma 62b.)

The Mishnah taught that because the peace-offering was a sacrifice of lesser sanctity, it could be slain in any part of the Temple court. (Mishnah Zevachim 5:7.) The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the Mishnah’s rule could be derived from the words “And he shall . . . kill it at the door of the tent of meeting” in Leviticus 3:2, “And he shall . . . kill it before the tent of meeting” in Leviticus 3:8, and “And he shall . . . kill it before the tent of meeting” in Leviticus 3:13. The three verses taken together taught that all sides of the Temple court were fit for performing sacrifices of lesser sanctity. (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 55a.)

The Gemara deduced from the words “And the priest shall make it smoke” in Leviticus 3:11 that the priest must not mix portions of one sacrifice with those of another. And the Gemara cited a Baraita to interpret the words “And the priest shall make them smoke” Leviticus 3:16 to teach that the priest had to burn all the sacrificed parts of an offering at the same time. (Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 64b.)

The Sages taught that one may trust butchers to remove the fat that Leviticus 3:17 and 7:23 forbids. (Mishnah Chullin 7:1; Babylonian Talmud Chullin 89b.)

The National Sin Offering (illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible)

[edit] Leviticus chapter 4

Tractate Horayot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the High Priest’s bull in Leviticus 4:1–12, the bull for a communal error in Leviticus 4:13–21, the ruler’s goat in Leviticus 4:22–26, and the sin offerings in Leviticus 4:27–5:12, and 5:17–19. (Mishnah Horayot 1:1–3:8; Tosefta Horayot 1:1–2:13; Jerusalem Talmud Horayot 1a–; Babylonian Talmud Horayot 2a–14a.)

The Rabbis interpreted the words, “If any one shall sin through error,” in Leviticus 4:2 to apply to inadvertent transgressions. (Babylonian Talmud Yoma 36b.)

The Mishnah taught that 35 transgressions warranted excision (“the soul shall be cut off,” נִכְרְתָה הַנֶּפֶשׁ, nichretah ha-nefesh) if committed intentionally, and warranted bringing of a sin offering (חַטָּאת, chatat), as in Leviticus 4:2, if committed inadvertently: when a man has intercourse with (1) his mother, (2) his father's wife, (3) his daughter-in-law, (4) another man, or (5) an animal; (6) when a woman has intercourse with an animal; when a man has intercourse with (7) a woman and her daughter, (8) a married woman, (9) his sister, (10) his father's sister, (11) his mother's sister, (12) his wife's sister, (13) his brother's wife, (14) the wife of his father's brother, or (15) a menstruous woman (as in Leviticus 18:6); when one (16) serves idols, (17) dedicates children to Molech, (18) has a familiar spirit, (19) desecrates the Sabbath, (20) eats of sacrificial food while unclean, (21) enters the precincts of the Temple in an unclean state, eats (22) forbidden fat, (23) blood, (24) remnant, or (25) refuse, (26) slaughters or (27) offers up a consecrated animal outside the Temple precincts, (28) eats anything leavened on Passover, (29) eats or (30) works on Yom Kippur, compounds sacred (31) anointing oil or (32) incense, (33) uses sacred anointing oil improperly, or transgresses the laws of (34) the Passover offering or (35) circumcision. (Mishnah Keritot 1:1–2; Babylonian Talmud Keritot 2a.)

[edit] Leviticus chapter 5

Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that Leviticus 5 uses the word “soul” (נֶפֶשׁ, nefesh) six times (in Leviticus 5:1, 2, 4, 15, 17, and 21), corresponding to the six days of Creation. God said to the soul that all that God created in the six days of creation God created for the sake of the soul, and then the soul went and sinned! And thus, Leviticus 5:1 begins, “When a soul sins . . . .” (Leviticus Rabbah 4:2.)

Tractates Nedarim and Shevuot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interprete the laws of vows in Exodus 20:7, Leviticus 5:1–10 and 19:12, Numbers 30:2–17, and Deuteronomy 23:24. (Mishnah Nedarim 1:1–11:12; Tosefta Nedarim 1:1–7:8; Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim 1a–; Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 2a–91b; Mishnah Shevuot 1:1–8:6; Tosefta Shevuot 1:1–6:7; Jerusalem Talmud Shevuot 1a–; Babylonian Talmud Shevuot 2a–49b.)

The Mishnah supposed that a witness, after having been cautioned about the grave responsibility of being a witness, would think that the witness should just avoid the trouble of testifying. The Mishnah taught that this is why Leviticus 5:1 says, "And he witnessed or saw or knew, if didn't say anything, he bears the sin." (And thus the witness must testify.) (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5.)

A Midrash deduced from the instructions in Leviticus 5:11–13 for the poor person to bring meal offerings that God valued the poor person’s offering. (Leviticus Rabbah 3:2.)

[edit] Commandments

According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 11 positive and 5 negative commandments in the parshah:

(See Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 2:3–73. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1984. ISBN 0-87306-296-5.)

[edit] In the liturgy

The list of animals from which the Israelites could bring sacrifices in Leviticus 1:2 provides an application of the fourth of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei d’Zimrah prayer service. The rule provides that when the general precedes the specific, the law applies only to the specific. Leviticus 1:2 says, “you shall bring your offering from the domestic animals, even from the herd or from the flock.” Applying the fourth rule teaches that Israelites could bring sacrifices from no domestic animals other than cattle from the herd or sheep or goats from the flock. (Menachem Davis. The Schottenstein Edition Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals with an Interlinear Translation, 244. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-57819-697-3.)

During the Torah reading, the gabbai calls for the Kohen to “approach” (קרב, k’rav) to perform the first aliah, or blessing on the Torah reading, recalling the use of the word “approach” (קרב, k’rav) in Leviticus 1:5 to describe the priest’s duty to perform the sacrificial service. (Davis. Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals, at 368.)

Many Jews read excerpts from and allusions to the instructions in the parshah as part of the readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings. Specifically, Jews read the instructions for the priest’s sacrifices in Leviticus 1:11 (Davis. Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals, at 221–22), the prohibition on leavening or honey in the incense in Leviticus 2:11 (Davis, at 228), a discussion of the bulls that are completely burned, in reference to the instructions in Leviticus 4:8–12 (Davis, at 236), and a discussion of the guilt offerings referred to in Leviticus 5:14–26 (Davis, at 239).

[edit] The Weekly Maqam

In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parshah. For parshah Vayikra, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Rast, the maqam that shows a beginning or an initiation of something. In this case it is appropriate because Jews are initiating the book of Leviticus.

Isaiah (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)

[edit] Haftarah

[edit] Generally

The haftarah for the parshah is Isaiah 43:21–44:23.

[edit] Summary

God formed the people of Israel that they might praise God, but they did not call upon God, nor did they bring God their burnt-offerings, meal-offerings, frankincense, or the fat of their sacrifices. (Isaiah 43:21–24.) Rather, they burdened God with their sins. (Isaiah 43:24.) God blots out their transgressions for God’s own sake. (Isaiah 43:25.) Their first father sinned, and their intercessors transgressed, and so God abandoned the sanctuary and the Israelites to condemnation. (Isaiah 43:27–28.)

And yet God told the people of Israel not to fear, for God would pour water upon the thirsty land, and God’s blessing upon their offspring, and they would spring up like grass. (Isaiah 44:1–4.) And they would call themselves the Lord’s, by the name of Jacob, and by the name of Israel. (Isaiah 44:5.)

God declared that God is the first and the last, and beside God there is no God, no One Who can proclaim what the future will be, no other Rock. (Isaiah 44:6–8.) Those who fashion graven images shall not profit; they shall be shamed together. (Isaiah 44:7–11.) The smith makes an ax, and the carpenter forms the figure of a man. (Isaiah 44:12–13.) He hews down cedars and oaks, and uses the same wood for fuel to warm himself and to make a god to worship. (Isaiah 44:14–17.) They do not know nor understand that they strive after ashes. (Isaiah 44:18–20.)

God called on the people of Israel to remember these things, and not forget God who formed them and blotted out their sins. (Isaiah 44:21–22.) God called on the heaven and earth, mountain and forest to sing, for God had redeemed Israel for God’s glory. (Isaiah 44:23.)

[edit] Connection to the Parshah

Both the parshah and the haftarah address sacrifices to God. Both the parshah and the haftarah address burnt offerings ('olah) (Leviticus 1:3–4, 6, 9–10 13–14, 17; 3:5; 4:7, 10, 18, 24–25, 29–30, 33–34; 5:7, 10; Isaiah 43:23), meal offerings (minchah) (Leviticus 2:3, 5–11, 13–15; 5:13; Isaiah 43:23), frankincense (levonah) (Leviticus 2:1-2, 15–16; 5:11; Isaiah 43:23), and witnesses (ed or eday). (Leviticus 5:1; Isaiah 44:8.)

[edit] On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh

When the parshah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh (as it does in 2012, 2015, and 2018), the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.

The Death of Agag (illustration by Gustave Doré)

[edit] On Shabbat Zachor

When the parshah coincides with Shabbat Zachor (the special Sabbath immediately preceding Purim — as it does in 2016), the haftarah is:

[edit] Connection to the Special Sabbath

On Shabbat Zachor, the Sabbath just before Purim, Jews read Deuteronomy 25:17–19, which instructs Jews: “Remember (zachor) what Amalek did” in attacking the Israelites. (Deuteronomy 25:17.) The haftarah for Shabbat Zachor, 1 Samuel 15:2–34 or 1–34, describes Saul’s encounter with Amalek and Saul’s and Samuel’s tretament of the Amalekite king Agag. Purim, in turn, commemorates the story of Esther and the Jewish people’s victory over Haman’s plan to kill the Jews, told in the book of Esther. (Esther 1:1–10:3.) Esther 3:1 identifies Haman as an Agagite, and thus a descendant of Amalek. Numbers 24:7 identifies the Agagites with the Amalekites. Alternatively, a Midrash tells the story that between King Agag’s capture by Saul and his killing by Samuel, Agag fathered a child, from whom Haman in turn descended. (Seder Eliyahu Rabbah ch. 20; Targum Sheni to Esther 4:13.)

[edit] Further reading

The parshah has parallels or is discussed in these classical sources:

[edit] Biblical

Philo

[edit] Early nonrabbinic

Josephus

[edit] Classical rabbinic

  • Mishnah: Berakhot 1:1; Shekalim 6:6; Nedarim 1:1–11:12; Bava Kamma 9:7; Sanhedrin 4:5; Shevuot 1:1–8:6; Horayot 1:1–3:8; Zevachim 1:1–14:10; Menachot 1:1–13:11; Chullin 1:4, 7:1; Arakhin 5:6; Keritot 1:2, 2:4, 4:3, 6:6–9; Kinnim 1:1–3:6; Parah 1:4. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 3, 261, 406–30, 524, 591, 616, 620–39, 689–766, 779, 817, 837, 839, 845, 849–50, 883–89, 1014. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4.
  • Tosefta: Peah 3:8; Demai 2:7; Challah 2:7; Bikkurim 2:1; Kippurim (Yoma) 1:5; Nedarim 1:1–7:8; Bava Kamma 7:5; Makkot 5:2–3; Shevuot 1:6–3:8; Horayot 1:1–2:13; Zevachim 1:1–13:20; Menachot 1:1–13:23; Chullin 9:14; Keritot 2:13–15. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:65, 85, 339, 348, 542, 785–805; 2:987, 1214, 1219–44, 1295–1369, 1401–02, 1429–30, 1437, 1453, 1562–63 1563. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 2002. ISBN 1-56563-642-2.
  • Sifra 1:1–69:1. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:65–345. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. ISBN 1-55540-205-4.
  • Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 8a; Terumot 31b, 71b; Challah 7a, 8a, 33a; Pesachim 18a, 36b, 37a, 38a–b, 43a, 78b; Yoma 2a, 8a, 11a–b, 12b, 14b, 16b–17a, 32a, 37a, 38b, 45b, 47a; Megillah 16a, 34b; Nedarim 1a–; Shevuot 1a–; Horayot 1a–. Land of Israel, circa 400 C.E. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 1, 7–8, 11, 18–19, 21, 26. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2012.
  • Leviticus Rabbah 1:1–7:1; 8:4; 10:3; 22:10. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon, 4:1–88, 90, 104, 124, 288. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
Talmud
Rashi

[edit] Medieval

  • Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 1–5. Troyes, France, late 11th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi’s Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 3:1–57. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-89906-028-5.
  • Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:60. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Intro. by Henry Slonimsky, 184. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN 0-8052-0075-4.
  • Zohar 3:2a–26a. Spain, late 13th century.
Hobbes

[edit] Modern

  • Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40, 42. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, 503–04, 572. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0-14-043195-0.
  • Jacob Milgrom. “Sacrifices and Offerings, OT,” and “Wave offering.” In The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Supp. vol., 763–71, 944–46. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1976. ISBN 0-687-19269-2.
  • Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, 3:129–378. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998. ISBN 0-385-11434-6.
  • Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, 108–09. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003. ISBN 0-316-73908-1.
  • Suzanne A. Brody. “A Priest’s Expiation.” In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, 85. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 1-60047-112-9.

[edit] External links

[edit] Texts

[edit] Commentaries

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