Water supply and sanitation in South Africa

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South Africa: Water and Sanitation
Flag of South Africa.svg
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 88% (2004)
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 65% (2004)
Continuity of supply 63% (2003) [1]
Average urban water use (l/c/d) n/a
Average urban water tariff (US$/m3) n/a
Share of household metering n/a
Annual investment in WSS US$5 per capita (2002/2003) [2]
Share of self-financing by utilities 42% (2002/03)[2]
Share of tax-financing and other financing 43% (2002/03)[2]
Share of loan financing 15% (2002/03)[2]
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities Substantial
National water and sanitation company None
Water and sanitation regulator None
Responsibility for policy setting Department of Water Affairs
Sector law 1997 Water Services Act
Number of urban service providers 169
Number of rural service providers Urban service providers also serve rural areas

Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe water supply and over 20 million without adequate sanitation services. The government thus made a strong commitment to high service standards and to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve those standards. Since then, the country has made satisfactory progress with regard to improving access to water supply: It reached universal access to an improved water source in urban areas, and in rural areas the share of those with access increased from 62% to 82% from 1990 to 2006.[3] South Africa also has a strong water industry with a track record in innovation.

However, much less progress has been achieved on sanitation: Access increased only from 55% to 59% during the same period. Significant problems remain concerning the financial sustainability of service providers, leading to a lack of attention to maintenance. The uncertainty about the government's ability to sustain current funding levels in the sector is also a concern.

Some important features that distinguish water policies and institutions in South Africa from most other countries in the world are the following:

  • The existence of water institutions between the national and local government in the form of Water Boards;
  • Strong linkages between water supply and sanitation on the one hand and water resources management on the other hand through these Water Boards; and
  • A policy of free basic water and sanitation.

Contents

[edit] Access

South Africa is one of the few countries in the world that enshrines the basic right to sufficient water in its Constitution, stating that "Everyone has the right to have access to (...) sufficient food and water". However, much remains to be done to fulfil that right.[4]

After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. However, different sources give substantially different figures about access. According to one source, about 15 million people were without safe water supply and over 20 million without adequate sanitation services in 1990. Since then, an additional population of about 10 million people gained access to an improved water source.[5] These figures, however, are not fully supported by census and survey data compiled by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program. According to these figures, the share of the population with access to an improved source of water supply has only increased from 83% in 1990 to 88% in 2004, implying that only 2 million people gained access in that period.[6]

Water tends to fall – literally – in the arms of women. Women spend one-third of their lives fetching water from streams and wells.[7] They are also responsible for using it to cook meals, wash laundry and bathe children. Men’s dependence on water is rooted in agriculture and livestock.

In his State of the Union address to Parliament in May 2004 President Thabo Mbeki promised "all households will have running water within five years".[8] Given previous trends, achieving this objective is a major challenge.

With respect to sanitation the picture is more sobering. According to official figures, an estimated 18 million South Africans did not have access to basic sanitation in 2002 and may be using the bucket system, pit toilets or the "veld" (open defecation). When sanitation systems are inadequate the health impacts can be extremely serious. This is evidenced in the estimated 1.5 million cases of diarrhoea in children under five and the 2001 outbreak of cholera.[9] According to estimates by the WHO/UNICEF global Joint Monitoring Program for water and sanitation based on survey and census data, the share of South Africans with access to adequate sanitation actually decreased from 69% in 1990 to 65% in 2004.[10] Given these trends it is difficult to see how the national target of universal access to a functioning sanitation facility by 2010 can be achieved.

Furthermore, substantial challenges remain in addressing historical inequalities in access to both water supply and sanitation, and in sustaining service provision over the long term.

[edit] Service quality

[edit] Water supply

Service quality is highly variable and data is sketchy. Monitoring of service quality by the government's Department of Water Affairs is only starting, with the "blue drop green drop" Water Quality Regulation Strategy[11]. Thus 63% of municipalities could not say if they met drinking water quality standards or not. Water supply to 37% of households was interrupted for at least one day in 2003.[1]

[edit] Sanitation

A survey by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) showed that wastewater treatment plants in the Gauteng area are working well and meet effluent standards. However, many other wastewater treatment plants do not meet effluent standards and some do not even measure effluent quality.[1] According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm specialized in wastewater treatment, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants in South Africa at least 60% are not meeting regulatory compliance requirements.[12]

[edit] Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

The water and sanitation sector in South Africa is organized in three different tiers:

  • The national government, represented by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), as a policy setter.
  • Water Boards, which provide primarily bulk water, but also some retail services and operate some wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role in water resources management;
  • Municipalities, which provide most retail services and also own some of the bulk supply infrastructure;

Banks, private operators, the professional association WISA, the Water Research Commission and NGOs also play important roles in the sector.

[edit] Policy and regulation

The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) is primarily responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy governing Water. In the water sector, it is in charge of policies for water resources management as well as water supply and sanitation.

[edit] Water Boards

Government-owned Water Boards play a key role in the South African water sector. They operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, some retail infrastructure and some wastewater systems. Some also provide technical assistance to municipalities. Through their role in the operation of dams they also play an important role in water resources management. The Water Boards report to the Department of Water Affairs.

There are 15 Water Boards in South Africa, together indirectly serving more than 24 million people in 90 municipalities in 2005, or about half the population of South Africa. The three largest Water Boards - Rand Water in Gauteng Province, Umgeni Water in KwaZulu Natal Province and Overberg Water – indirectly serve 10 million, 4 million and 2 million people respectively. This is three times as much (18 million) as all the 12 smaller water boards together (6 million).[13] Rand Water has a more than 100-year history in the Gauteng area, the industrial heartland of South Africa. It buys water from DWA, treats it and sells it to large industries, mines and municipalities.

The Water Boards have associated themselves in the South African Association of Water Utilities (SAAWU), which also includes a few municipal water companies.[14]

[edit] Service provision

Responsibility for service provision is shared among municipalities, water boards and community-based organizations in rural areas. The national government, through the Department of Water Affairs, also operates dams, bulk water supply infrastructure and some retail infrastructure.

[edit] Municipalities

Map showing the provinces and districts (numbered) of South Africa
     Northern Cape      North West      Gauteng      Limpopo      Mpumalanga      KwaZulu-Natal      Eastern Cape      Free State      Western Cape

According to the Constitution, the Municipal Structures Act and the Water Services Act of 1997 [15] responsibility for the provision of water and sanitation services lies with the municipalities, which in practice means the country's 52 district municipalities. The national government can also assign responsibility for service provision to local municipalities, of which there are 231. (see Municipalities of South Africa) Overall, there are 169 water service authorities in South Africa, including water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities and municipal companies.

The responsibility for rural water supply and sanitation has been transferred from the national government, represented by DWAF, to municipalities.

[edit] Commercialization and private sector participation
Main article: Water privatization in South Africa

Since 1994 some municipalities have involved the private sector in service provision in various forms, including contracts for specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts and long-term concessions.

[edit] Others

[edit] Research, training and knowledge

South Africa has a fairly strong research and training infrastructure in the water sector. The Water Research Commission (WRC) supports water research and development as well as the building of a sustainable water research capacity in South Africa. It serves as the country's water-centred knowledge ‘hub’ leading the creation, dissemination and application of water-centred knowledge, focusing on water resource management, water-linked ecosystems, water use and waste management and water utilisation in agriculture.[16]

The Water Institute of South Africa (WISA), a professional association, keeps its members abreast of the latest developments in water technology and research through its national and international liaison, links and affiliations.

[edit] Financiers and Promoters

The Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) is an important player in the water and sanitation sector, both as a financier and as an advisor and project promoter. In 2005-2006 about 29% of its approved projects were for water supply (1,881 million Rand) and sanitation (165 million Rand). [17] Other financing institutions in the sector include the Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, which claims to be the only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund in the world.[18]

[edit] Non-governmental organizations

The Mvula trust is a well-known water supply and sanitation non-governmental organisation (NGO) in South Africa, which has disbursed over R300 million to water services programmes and projects and has provided services to over a million South Africans who previously did not have access to either water or sanitation services. It is specialized in implementing and supporting the delivery of water services in rural and peri-urban areas through community management, the establishment of community based water services providers and supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment for sustainability.[19]

There are also many other smaller NGOs that together play an important role in the sector.

[edit] History and recent developments

The skyline of Johannesburg's Central Business District as seen from the observatory of the Carlton Centre.

The history of the water supply and sanitation sector since the end of Apartheid has been characterized by a strong government commitment to increase access to services and a gradual reduction of the role of Water Boards and the national government in service provision. There has also been a tension between the goal of increased cost recovery enshrined in the 1997 Water Services Act on the one hand, and the constitutional right to access to water introduced in 1996 and the policy of free basic water introduced in 2001 on the other hand. There have been a number of controversies on policies in the sectors, including about private sector participation, which was introduced in the mid-1990s, the practice of cutting off water or installing flow restrictors for those who do not pay their bills, and the installation of pre-paid meters.[20]

[edit] 1997 Water Services Act

In 1994 the government published its first White Paper on Water and Sanitation Policy, which led to the Water Services Act of 1997. [15]

The Act calls for higher cost recovery, which proved a challenge due to widespread poverty and a culture of non-payment for water in many Townships, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher water tariffs and rigorous cut-offs for non-payment, or flow reductions through the installation of "tricklers" that allow only a very limited flow of water, imposed hardships on the poorest.

The Act also modified the role of Water Boards, providing a clear legal definition of the functions of Water Boards and municipalities. Water Boards have historically been the only bulk water providers. Municipalities were obliged to buy water through them. The Act allowed municipalities to develop their own bulk water supply infrastructure or to buy bulk water from providers other than Water Boards. Conversely it also allowed Water Boards to provide retail water services at the request of municipalities.[21] Since the Act has been passed the capacity of both Water Boards and many water service providers has increased significantly.

[edit] 2000: The promise of free basic water and management contract for Johannesburg

Free basic water. After Thabo Mbeki became President of South Africa in 1999 and a cholera outbreak occurred in 2000, the African National Congress promised free basic water during a municipal election campaign in December 2000. In July 2001 a revised tariff structure was suggested that included 6 "kilolitres"" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40 litre/capita/day for a family of five or 25 litre/capita/day for a family of eight). Putting the policy of free basic water in practice proved a challenge. The policy is only being implemented gradually.

Johannesburg management contract. Building on earlier experiences with private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract for water services in Johannesburg, South Africa's largest city and the country's economic and financial hub, was awarded in 2000 to the Joint Venture Water and Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). The Johannesburg management contract was not renewed when it expired in 2005. However, private operators continue to provide services in many other South African cities.

Pre-paid meters. Pre-paid meters were introduced in Johannesburg, including in Soweto, and in other cities as part of management contracts with private operators. These meters, which cut off water supply above the 6 cubic meter monthly limit if no payment is made, sparked substantial protests in poor neighbourhoods. In Johannesburg they were maintained even after the management contract expired.

In April 2008 the South African High Court found this practice unconstitutional, and wrote that denying the poor access to adequate water “is to deny them the rights to health and to lead a dignified lifestyle.” Further, the judge stated that “25 liters per person per day is insufficient for the residents of Phiri”, and ordered the city to provide free basic water in the amount of 50 liters per person per day with the option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of pre-paid) for more use. The Court apparently assumed a household size of eight. Phiri is a neighborhood in Soweto whose residents had sued against pre-paid meters. [22] However, in October 2009 the Constitutional Court overturned the case and declared pre-paid meters to be lawful. [23]

[edit] 2001 Basic Sanitation White Paper

In response to the fact that access to sanitation lags significantly behind access to water, the government published its White Paper on Basic Household Sanitation in 2001. [24] It called for universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, with priority accorded to communities with the greatest needs. The policy outlines the roles of the various stakeholders - households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government - and establishes coordination and monitoring mechanisms. It also calls for Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments in sanitation. The paper notes that it is the government's policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but does not spell out how this policy will be implemented in the case of basic sanitation.

[edit] 2002 National Strategy: A less prominent role for the national government

Following a second White Paper on water supply and sanitation policy published in 2002 (after the first White Paper in 1994) a national policy was established to further decentralize the sector, phasing out the national government's involvement in service provision, limiting DWAF's role to policy and regulation.[25] In rural areas this policy of decentralization has been supported by the Masibambane program, a sector-wide approach linked to budget-based donor support for rural water supply and sanitation. The initial investment was ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) with a focus on the three poorest provinces and a target to reach about 2.5 million people. A 2004 evaluation by the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa showed that the program performed well financially.[26] The program is now in its third phase.

[edit] Ministers of Water Affairs and Forestry

[edit] Efficiency

In Johannesburg, non-revenue water was estimated at 42% in 2001 and 37% in 2003.[27]

[edit] Financial aspects

[edit] Tariffs, Cost Recovery and Free Basic Water

South Africa has introduced a policy of free basic services, including water, electricity and solid waste collection.[28] As part of that policy, every eligible household is to receive the first 6 cubic meters per month for free. The policy was not to be implemented immediately, but gradually and within the means of each municipality. [29] Municipalities would decide if free basic water would be made available only to the poor, and how the poor would be defined and identified, or if it would be granted to all water users. The cost of the policy has been estimated at 1.5bn Rand or 0.15% of GDP. The subsidy is to be financed either through subsidies from the national government from the "equitable share" automatic transfers, through cross-subsidies from other users or local taxes. Making the subsidy available to the poorest users is a challenge. Nevertheless, in August 2007 36 million South Africans (about 75% of the population) had access to free basic water according to DWAF's water sector information system.[30] Out of 169 service providers, 29 provided free basic water to all its users, 136 to some and 4 to none.[31] In 2007 the program reached 86% of all households and 87% of poor households. Economist Paul Berkowitz of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies at Witwatersrand University concludes that it is a good program with almost universal coverage of municipalities without having bankrupted them.[32]

According to Nkululeko Gmuede, a former official at the Department of Water Affairs, around 75% of all free water benefits people who can pay for it. The policy is more successful in wealthier municipalities than in low-income rural areas. This is one of the reasons why the government is reviewing its implementation strategy for free basic water, possibly through registers of poor users.[32]

It has been suggested to also adopt a policy of free basic sanitation, which is likely to present even greater challenges.[29]

There is little information available on actual water tariffs and on their affordability, i.e. the share of water bills in household income.

[edit] Investment

According to the Infrastructure Barometer published by DBSA and based on figures provided by the National Treasury, total investments in water supply and sanitation in 2002/2003 were as follows:

  • 1,137 million Rand for water supply by municipalities
  • 485 million Rand for sanitation by municipalities
  • 428 million Rand for water supply and some water resources development by Water Boards [2]

Total investments thus stood at 2,450 million Rand or about US$ 250 million, corresponding to about US$ 5/capita. The Compass does not mention any investments by DWAF. [33]

The 2002 White Paper estimated investments in the sector to be much higher, at 5bn Rand annually. This included 1.2 bn Rand of investments made by DWAF, 1.0 by Water Boards and 2.8 by municipalities.[34]

[edit] Financing

Municipal infrastructure investments were financed from the following sources in 2002/2003:

  • 24% through municipal and provincial grants (each 12%);
  • 15% through loans;
  • 42% through internal cash generation; and
  • 19% through other sources.[35]

The larger municipalities rely more on loans and on internal cash generation, while the smaller ones depend more on grants and other sources of funding.

All municipalities receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, called "equitable share". The formula benefits poorer municipalities.

In addition there is a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG) administered by the Department of Provincial and Local Government. [36] and a Capacity Building Grant. The MIG programme is aimed at providing all South Africans with at least a basic level of service by the year 2013 through the provision of grant finance to cover the capital cost of basic infrastructure for the poor.

[edit] Criticism of Government water and sanitation policy

There are a number of new social movements (such as Abahlali baseMjondolo and the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign), claiming to represent the poorest and most oppressed communities in South Africa, that have emerged to deal with issues relating to government service delivery and policy. Supplying water to these communities is one of the main issues that these movements address and there is a specific focus on preventing water cut-offs and campaigning for free basic water. Because of their criticism of the government, they have suffered severe repression by officials and police.[citation needed] This tendency to de-value certain groups of people correlates with their historically constructed identity. South Africans’ access to water is limited based on this model of structural violence.

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c Infrastructure Barometer 2006, p. 121-122
  2. ^ a b c d e Infrastructure Barometer 2006 p. 86-87
  3. ^ WHO/UNICEF: Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation, 2008, pp. 41-53
  4. ^ Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27
  5. ^ BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no4, pp. 303-312.
  6. ^ See WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP):Water in South Africa. The calculation is based on a population of 40 million in 1990 and 46 million in 2004. Survey and census data used for estimates are only for the 1996-2003 period, extrapolating data to estimate earlier figures, since the 1994/1995 survey data showing very high access data were considered unreliable by the JMP.
  7. ^ Itana, Nicole:For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom. WEnews September 6, 2002, accessed on March 16, 2010
  8. ^ Mbeki State of the Union 2004
  9. ^ 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper
  10. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program: Sanitation in South Africa
  11. ^ Water Quality Regulation, a strategy for incentive-based regulation (blue and green drop status)
  12. ^ Global Water Intelligence:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26
  13. ^ Infrastructure Barometer 2006, p. 123
  14. ^ South African Association of Water Utilities (SAAWU)
  15. ^ a b Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:Water Services Act of 1997, accessed on September 27, 2009
  16. ^ Water Research Commission (WRC)
  17. ^ Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005-2006, p. 7
  18. ^ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA
  19. ^ Mvula Trust
  20. ^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatization in South Africa, Bob Carty, February 2003
  21. ^ 2002 White Paper
  22. ^ Pacific Institute: Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision, May 1, 2008
  23. ^ IRC:South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents loose court battle, accessed on November 20, 2009
  24. ^ Sanitation White Paper
  25. ^ Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation
  26. ^ IRC:South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation, 29 September 2004
  27. ^ http://www.joburg.org.za/2003/budget/water2.stm (dead link)
  28. ^ For more details see DWAF 2001 Implementation Strategy for Free Basic Water
  29. ^ a b White Paper 2002, p. 34
  30. ^ Water sector national information system (WSNIS)
  31. ^ Department of Water Affairs:Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status, accessed on December 29, 2009
  32. ^ a b The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31
  33. ^ This uses an exchange rate of 1:10 that prevailed in fall 2002. In June 2003 the exchange rate was less than 1:8 after an appreciation of the Rand
  34. ^ White Paper 2002, p. 2, with no reference given to a specific year or years. At an exchange rate of 6 Rand to 1 US$ in early 2000 this corresponds to about US$800 million. However at the 2002 exchange rate of 10 Rand to 1 US$ it corresponds to only US$500 million.
  35. ^ Infrastructure Barometer 2006 p. 87. The shares refer to all municipal infrastructure investments. There are no figures specifically for water supply and sanitation.
  36. ^ For more information on MIG see MIG

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