Wind turbine

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This article is about wind-powered electrical generators. For wind-powered machinery used to grind grain or pump water, see windmill.
Offshore wind farm using 5MW turbines REpower 5M in the North Sea off the coast of Belgium.
Renewable energy

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind, also called wind energy, into mechanical energy; a process known as wind power. If the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind turbine or wind power plant. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump. Similarly, it may be referred to as a wind charger when used for charging batteries.

The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power on boats; while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly important source of wind power-produced commercial electricity.

Contents

History

Main article: History of wind power
James Blyth's electricity-generating wind turbine, photographed in 1891
The first megawatt-capacity wind turbine in the USA, in 1941 Vermont

Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) as early as 200 B.C.[1] The windwheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.[2][3] However, the first known practical windmills were built in Sistan, a region between Afghanistan and Iran, from the 7th century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangular blades.[4] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[5]

Windmills first appeared in Europe during the middle ages. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190.[6] By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta.

The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland.[7] Some months later American inventor Charles F Brush built the first automatically operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.[7] Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom[7] electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations.[6]

The first automatically operated wind turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6 metric tonnes) and powered a 12 kW generator.[8]

In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The largest machines were on 24-metre (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-metre (75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the US from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.[9] By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.

A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at Yalta, Soviet Ukraine in the USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-metre (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different from current wind machines.[10] In the fall of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical failure. The unit was not repaired because of shortage of materials during the war.

The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands.[7][11]

As of 2012, Danish company Vestas is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer.

Resources

Main article: Wind power
Nordex N117/2400 in Germany, a modern low-wind turbine.

A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD) It is a calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Metres". In the United States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred to as "NREL CLASS". The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square metre or less at 50 m altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square m). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas, although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.[12]

Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class IV, with A or B referring to the turbulence.[13]

Class Avg Wind Speed (m/s) Turbulence
IA 10 18%
IB 10 16%
IIA 8.5 18%
IIB 8.5 16%
IIIA 7.5 18%
IIIB 7.5 16%
IVA 6 18%
IVB 6 16%

Efficiency

Theoretical power captured by a wind turbine

Total wind power could be captured only if the wind velocity is reduced to zero. In a realistic wind turbine this is impossible, as the captured air must also leave the turbine. A relation between the input and output wind velocity must be considered. Using the concept of streamtube, the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine is 59% of the total theoretical wind power[14] (see: Betz' law).

Practical wind turbine power

Further inefficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. The basic relation that the turbine power is (approximately) proportional to the third power of velocity remains.

Types

The three primary types:VAWT Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT Darrieus as they appear in operation

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.[15]

Horizontal axis

Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position
A turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield, UK

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[16]

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (66 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 metres per second (300 ft/s).[17][18] A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.

Vertical axis design

A vertical axis Twisted Savonius type turbine.

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for example when integrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.[19]

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility for maintenance.

When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence. It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,[20][21] noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan it uses the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a large unit producing up to 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in 1980s:[22] the device is mentioned in Dr. Moshe Dan Hirsch's 1990 report, which decided the Israeli energy department investments and support in the next 20 years.[citation needed] The Magenn WindKite blimp uses this configuration as well, chosen because of the ease of running.[citation needed]

Design and construction

Main article: Wind turbine design
Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.

Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:

  • The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.
  • The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox,[23] adjustable-speed drive[24] or continuously variable transmission[25]) component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.
  • The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.[26]

A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower 80 metres (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs 48,000 pounds (22,000 kg). The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs 115,000 pounds (52,000 kg). The concrete base for the tower is constructed using 58,000 pounds (26,000 kg) of reinforcing steel and contains 250 cubic yards (190 m3) of concrete. The base is 50 ft (15 m) in diameter and 8 ft (2.4 m) thick near the center.[27]

Unconventional designs

Main article: Unconventional wind turbines
The corkscrew shaped wind turbine at Progressive Field in Cleveland, Ohio

One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck, open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham, England. Airborne wind turbines have been investigated many times but have yet to produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.

Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.[28]

The ram air turbine is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to some aircraft. When deployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide power for the most essential systems if there is a loss of all on–board electrical power.[citation needed]

Wind turbines on public display

Main article: Wind turbines on public display
The Nordex N50 wind turbine and visitor centre of Lamma Winds in Hong Kong

A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away.[29] The wind turbines themselves are generally of conventional horizontal-axis, three-bladed design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration, public relations, and education.

Small wind turbines

Main article: Small wind turbine
A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine in Bristol, England. Measuring 3m in diameter and 5m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5kW to the grid.

Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. The U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100 kilowatts.[41] Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.

Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.

Wind turbine spacing

On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economically optimal, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research[42] conducted by Charles Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University,[43] and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations[44] that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.[45]

Accidents

Several cases occurred where the housings of wind turbines caught fire. As housings are normally out of the range of standard fire extinguishing equipment, it is nearly impossible to extinguish such fires on older turbine units which lack fire suppression systems. In several cases one or more blades were damaged or torn away.[46] In 2010 70 mph (110 km/h; 61 kn) storm winds damaged some blades, prompting blade removal and inspection of all 25 wind turbines in Campo Indian Reservation in the US State of California.[47] Several wind turbines also collapsed.

Place Date Type Nacelle height Rotor dia. Year built Reason Damage and casualties
Ellenstedt, Germany October 19, 2002 [48]
Schneebergerhof, Germany December 20, 2003 Vestas V80 80 m [48]
Wasco, Oregon, USA August 25, 2007 Siemens Human error: turbine restarted while blades were locked in maximum wind-resistance mode[49] 1 worker killed, 1 injured
Stobart Mill, UK December 30, 2007 Vestas 1982 [50]
Hornslet, Denmark February 22, 2008 Nordtank NKT 600-180 44.5 m 43 m 1996 Brake failure[51][52]
Searsburg, Vermont, USA October 16, 2008 Zond Z-P40-FS 1997 Rotor blade collided with tower during strong wind and destroyed it[53]
Altona, New York, USA March 6, 2009 GE Energy 1.5MW[54] Lightning likely [55]
Fenner, New York, USA December 27, 2009 GE Energy 1.5 MW[citation needed] [56]
Kirtorf, Germany June 19, 2011 DeWind D-6 68.5 m 62 m 2001
Ayrshire, Scotland December 8, 2011 Vestas V80 2MW[57] [58]

Records

Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, among the world's tallest wind turbines
Éole, the largest vertical axis wind turbine, in Cap-Chat, Quebec
Largest capacity
The Enercon E-126 has a rated capacity of 7.58 MW,[59] has an overall height of 198 m (650 ft), a diameter of 126 m (413 ft), and is the world's largest-capacity wind turbine since its introduction in 2007.[60] At least five companies are working on the development of a 10 MW turbine.
Largest swept area
The turbine with the largest swept area is the Siemens SWT-6.0-154, with a diameter of 154 m, giving a total sweep of 18,600 m2.[61][62]
Tallest
The tallest wind turbines are two standing in Paproć, Poland, 210 meters tall, also constructed by Fuhrlaender in late 2012. Their axis have the same height as previous tallest turbine, Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, that is 160 meters, but their rotors reach 210 against the Laasow's 205 meters. Those three turbines are the only ones in the world taller than 200 meters.[63][64]
Largest vertical-axis
Le Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) named Éole, which is the world's largest at 110 m.[65] It has a nameplate capacity of 3.8 MW.[66]
Most southerly
The turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are three Enercon E-33 in Antarctica, powering New Zealand's Scott Base and the United States' McMurdo Station since December 2009[67][68] although a modified HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 1997 and 1998.[69] In March 2010 CITEDEF designed, built and installed a wind turbine in Argentine Marambio Base.[70]
Most productive
Four turbines at Rønland wind farm in Denmark share the record for the most productive wind turbines, with each having generated 63.2 GWh by June 2010.[71]
Highest-situated
The world's highest-situated wind turbine is made by DeWind installed by the Seawind Group and located in the Andes, Argentina around 4,100 meters (13,500 ft) above sea level. The site uses a type D8.2 - 2000 kW / 50 Hz turbine. This turbine has a new drive train concept with a special torque converter (WinDrive) made by Voith and a synchronous generator. The WKA was put into operation in December 2007 and has supplied the Veladero mine of Barrick Gold with electricity since then.[72]
Largest floating wind turbine
The world's largest—and also the first operational deep-water large-capacity—floating wind turbine is the 2.3 MW Hywind currently operating 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) offshore in 220-meter-deep water, southwest of Karmøy, Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a Siemens 2.3 MW turbine.[73][74]

Horizontal axis wind turbines

A list of the different models of wind turbines from the top 10 wind turbine manufacturers by market share:

MW Name Manufacturer Market date Offshore Swept area m2 Rotor diameter
(meters)		 Hub height
(meters)		 Geared
8.0 MW V164-8.0 MW Vestas 2015 Q1 x 21,124 164 105 x
7.580 MW E-126 Enercon 2011 - 12,668 127 135 -
6.0 MW SWT-6.0-154 Siemens Wind Power 2012 both 18,600[75] 154 Site-specific[76] -
6.0 MW SL6000 Sinovel 2011 - 12,868 128 x
5.0 MW SL5000 Sinovel 2010 - 12,868 128 x
5.0 MW G128-5.0 MW Gamesa 2013 x 12,868 128 80-94[77] x
4.5 MW G136-4.5 MW Gamesa 2011[78] - 14,527 136 120[79] x
4.5 MW G128-4.5 MW Gamesa 2012 - 12,868 128 81, 120, 140[80] x
4.1 MW 4.1-113[81] GE Energy x 9,940[81] 113 -
3.6 MW SWT-3.6-120 Siemens Wind Power 2010 - 11,300 120 90 x
3.6 MW SWT-3.6-107 Siemens Wind Power 2004 both 9,000 107 80 x
3.05 MW E-101 Enercon  ? - 8,012 101 99, 135, 149 -
3.0 MW UP100DD[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 100 -
3.0 MW UP100DF[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 100 x
3.0 MW SWT-3.0-113[83] Siemens Wind Power  ? - 10,000 113 79.5-142.5 -
3.0 MW SWT-3.0-108 Siemens Wind Power  ? - 9,150 108 79.5-99.5 -
3.0 MW SWT-3.0-101 Siemens Wind Power  ? - 8,000 101 74.5-99.5 -
3.0 MW V112-3.0 MW[84] Vestas  ? - 9,852 112 84, 94, 119 x
3.0 MW V112-3.0 MW Offshore[85] Vestas  ? x 9,852 112 site specific x
3.0 MW V90-3 MW[86] Vestas 2003 - 6,362 90 80, 90, 105 x
3.0 MW V90-3.0 MW Offshore Vestas 2003 x 6,362 90 site specific x
3.0 MW E-82 E3, E4 Enercon  ? - 5,281 82 78, 85, 98, 108, 138 -
3.0 MW SCD 3.0 MW[87] Ming Yang  ? - 6,644, 7,850 92, 100, 108 75, 85, 90, 100 x
3.0 MW SL3000[88] Sinovel 2010 - 10,038.7 113.3 90 x
2.75 MW 2.75-103[89] GE Energy  ? - 103 85, 98.3 x
2.75 MW 2.75-100[89] GE Energy  ? - 100 85, 98.3 x
2.6 MW V100-2.6 MW Vestas  ? - 7,854 100 x
2.5 MW E-115 Enercon  ? - 10,387 115 92.5-149 -
2.5 MW GW 109[90] Goldwind  ? - 9,399 109 100 -
2.5 MW GW 106[90] Goldwind  ? - 8,824 106 100 -
2.5 MW GW 100[90] Goldwind  ? - 7,823 100 100 -
2.5 MW GW 90[90] Goldwind  ? - 6,362 90 80 -
2.5 MW SCD 2.5 MW[87] Ming Yang  ? - 6,644, 7,850 92, 100, 108 75, 85, 90, 100 x
2.35 MW E-92 Enercon  ? - 6,648 92 85, 98, 104, 108, 138 -
2.3 MW E-82 E2 Enercon  ? - 5,281 82 78, 85, 98, 108, 138 -
2.3 MW E-70[91] Enercon  ? - 3,959 71 57, 64, 74, 85, 98, 113 -
2.3 MW SWT-2.3-113[92] Siemens Wind Power  ? - 10,000 113 99.5 -
2.3 MW SWT-2.3-108[93] Siemens Wind Power  ? - 9,144 108 80 x
2.3 MW SWT-2.3-101[94] Siemens Wind Power  ? - 8,000 101 80 x
2.3 MW SWT-2.3-93[95] Siemens Wind Power  ? - 6,800 93 80 x
2.3 MW SWT-2.3-82 VS Siemens Wind Power  ? - 5,300 82.4 80 x
2.25 MW S88 MARK II DFIG 2.25 MW[96] Suzlon 2011 - 6,082 88 80 x
2.1 MW S9X (S95, S97)[97] Suzlon  ? - 7,085, 7,386 95, 97 80, 90, 100 x
2.1 MW S88-2.1 MW[98] Suzlon  ? - 6,082 88 80 x
2.0 MW E-82 E2[99] Enercon  ? - 5,281 82 78, 85, 98, 108, 138 -
2.0 MW G114-2.0 MW Gamesa 2013[100] - 10,207 114 93, 120, 140[101] x
2.0 MW G97-2.0 MW Gamesa 2010[102] - 7,390 97 78, 90[103] x
2.0 MW G90-2.0 MW Gamesa 2005[104] - 6,362 90 67, 78, 100 x
2.0 MW G87-2.0 MW Gamesa 2004 - 5,945 87 67, 78, 90, 100[105] x
2.0 MW G80-2.0 MW Gamesa 2003 - 5,027 80 60, 67, 78, 100[106] x
2.0 MW UP96[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 96.4 x
1.8/2.0 MW V100-1.8/2.0 MW[107] Vestas  ? - 7,854 100 80, 95 x
1.8 MW V100-1.8 MW Vestas  ? - 100
1.8/2.0 MW V90-1.8/2.0 MW[107] Vestas  ? - 6,362 90 80-125 x
2.0 MW V80-2.0 MW[107] Vestas  ? - 5,027 80 60-100 x
1.6 MW 1.6-82.5[108] GE Energy 2008 - 5,346 82.5 65, 80, 100 x
1.5 MW 1.5-77[109] GE Energy 2004 - 4,657[110] 77 65, 80 x
1.5 MW 1.5s[108] GE Energy  ? - 3,904[111] 70.5 64.7 x
1.5 MW 1.5i[108] GE Energy 1996 - 65 x
1.5 MW GW 87[112] Goldwind  ? - 5,890 87 70, 75, 85, 100 -
1.5 MW GW 82[112] Goldwind  ? - 5,324 82 70, 75, 85, 100 -
1.5 MW GW 77[112] Goldwind  ? - 4,654 77 61.5, 85, 100 -
1.5 MW GW 70[112] Goldwind  ? - 3,850 70 65, 85 -
1.5 MW UP86[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 86.086 x
1.5 MW UP82[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 82.76 x
1.5 MW UP77[82] Guodian United Power  ? - 77.36 x
1.5 MW MY 1.5s[113] Ming Yang  ? - 5,320 82.6 65, 70, 75, 80 x
1.5 MW MY 1.5se[113] Ming Yang  ? - 4,368 77.1 65, 70, 75, 80 x
1.5 MW MY 1.5Sh[113] Ming Yang  ? - 5,320 82.6 65, 70, 75, 80 x
1.5 MW MY 1.5Su[113] Ming Yang  ? - 4,368/5,320 77.1/82.6 65, 70, 75, 80 x
1.5 MW S82-1.5 MW[114] Suzlon  ? - 5,281 82 78.5 x
1.5 MW SL1500/70,77,82[115] Sinovel  ? - 3,892.5, 4,657, 5,398 70.4, 77.4, 82.9 65-100 x
1.25 MW S66-1.25 MW[116] Suzlon  ? - 3,421 66 74.5 x
1.25 MW S66-1.25 MW[117] Suzlon  ? - 3,421 66 74.5 x
1.25 MW S64-1.25 MW[117] Suzlon  ? - 3,217 64 74.5 x
0.9 MW E-44[118] Enercon  ? - 1,521 44 45, 55 -
0.85 MW G58-0.85 MW[119] Gamesa  ? - 2,682 58 44, 55, 65, 74 x
0.85 MW G52-0.85 MW[120] Gamesa  ? - 2,214 52 44, 55, 65 x
0.8 MW E-53[121] Enercon  ? - 2,198 52.9 60, 73 -
0.8 MW E-48[122] Enercon  ? - 1,810 48 50, 55, 60, 76 -
0.6 MW S52-600KW[123] Suzlon  ? - 2,124 52 75 x

See also

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References

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  9. ^ Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas
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  16. ^ [1][dead link]
  17. ^ Products & Services
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  21. ^ http://www.urbanwind.net/pdf/technological_analysis.pdf
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  23. ^ ZF Friedrichshafen AG
  24. ^ djtreal.com - de beste bron van informatie over djtreal. Deze website is te koop!
  25. ^ John Gardner, Nathaniel Haro and Todd Haynes (October 2011). Active Drivetrain Control to Improve Energy Capture of Wind Turbines. Boise State University. Retrieved 28 February 2012 
  26. ^ "Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model", Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35, 36
  27. ^ [2][dead link]
  28. ^ Spiral Magnus|MECARO|Introducuction to Magnus
  29. ^ Young, Kathryn (2007-08-03). "Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists". Edmonton Journal. Retrieved 2008-09-06. 
  30. ^ Zhou, Renjie; Yadan Wang (2007-08-14). "Residents of Inner Mongolia Find New Hope in the Desert". Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved 2008-11-04. 
  31. ^ Bolsher, Terry (11 2005). "Green energy". BNET. Retrieved 2008-11-12. 
  32. ^ "Power from the wind" (PDF). Renewable Energy Systems. Retrieved 2008-11-16. 
  33. ^ "Wind farm is in the frame". Bury Times. 2008-11-28. Retrieved 2008-12-12. [dead link]
  34. ^ "Boston's First Wind Turbine Serves as Example". RenewableEnergyAccess.com. 2005-05-18. Retrieved 2008-11-03. 
  35. ^ "Wind Turbine Project Q & A". Great Lakes Science Center. 2006-05-17. Retrieved 2008-10-28. 
  36. ^ "Great River's new headquarters 'LEEDs' by example". Reliable Energy Solutions. Retrieved 2008-11-01. 
  37. ^ Levy, Paul (2007-11-27). "An energy model for all to see". Star Tribune. Retrieved 2008-11-02. 
  38. ^ Broehl, Jesse (2005-07-22). "Wal-Mart Deploys Solar, Wind, Sustainable Design". Renewable Energy World. Retrieved 2008-11-01. 
  39. ^ "DeWind Plans Wind Turbine Demo Site in Sweetwater, Texas". BNET Business Network. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2008-11-05. 
  40. ^ Block, Ben (2008-07-24). "In Windy West Texas, An Economic Boom". Retrieved 2008-11-05. 
  41. ^ Small Wind, U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website
  42. ^ J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2011), Wind Energy doi:10.1002/we.469
  43. ^ Optimal spacing for wind turbines
  44. ^ M. Calaf, C. Meneveau and J. Meyers, "Large Eddy Simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" (2010), Phys. Fluids 22, 015110
  45. ^ Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays (2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104
  46. ^ WindByte.co.uk website
  47. ^ Windstorm damage, SignOnSanDiego.com website
  48. ^ a b Umfaller im Windpark Ellenstedt in der Nähe von Vechta
  49. ^ Oregon OSHA releases findings in wind turbine collapse
  50. ^ "Probe into wind turbine collapse". 
  51. ^ Ron's Log: Wind Energy
  52. ^ Nordtank (Vestas) wind system fail and crashes. - YouTube
  53. ^ Strong wind destroys Searsburg wind turbine : Rutland Herald Online
  54. ^ Galbraith, Kate (2009-03-17). "Turbine Collapses, Wiring Blamed - NYTimes.com". Green.blogs.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2013-06-14. 
  55. ^ Lightning Possible Cause of Turbine Fire | WXGuard Wind
  56. ^ Better Plan: The Trouble With Industrial Wind Farms in Wisconsin - Today's Special Feature - 12/28/09 UPDATE on yesterday's turbine collapse: Another One Bites the Dust: What ...
  57. ^ "Ardrossan". Infinis. Retrieved 2013-06-14. 
  58. ^ Wind Turbine Explodes Into Flames : Discovery News
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  60. ^ "New Record: World's Largest Wind Turbine (7+ Megawatts) — MetaEfficient Reviews". MetaEfficient.com. 2008-02-03. Retrieved 2010-04-17. 
  61. ^ Siemens brochure
  62. ^ Siemens starts field tests of biggest rotor offshore turbine
  63. ^ "FL 2500 Noch mehr Wirtschaftlichkeit" (in German). Fuhrlaender AG. Retrieved 2009-11-05. 
  64. ^ "Nowy Tomyśl: powstały najwyższe wiatraki na świecie!" (in Polish). Epoznan. Retrieved 2012-12-04. 
  65. ^ "Visits : Big wind turbine". Retrieved 2010-04-17. 
  66. ^ "Wind Energy Power Plants in Canada - other provinces". 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-08-24. 
  67. ^ Antarctica New Zealand
  68. ^ New Zealand Wind Energy Association
  69. ^ Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine.
  70. ^ GENERADOR DE ENERGÍA EÓLICA EN LA ANTÁRTIDA
  71. ^ "Surpassing Matilda: record-breaking Danish wind turbines". Retrieved 2010-07-26. 
  72. ^ Voith | Voith Turbo
  73. ^ Patel, Prachi (2009-06-22). "Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2011-03-07. "will test how the 2.3-megawatt turbine holds up in 220-meter-deep water." 
  74. ^ Madslien, Jorn (8 September 2009). "Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved 2011-03-07. "world's first full-scale floating wind turbine" 
  75. ^ Technical specifications
  76. ^ Siemens 6.0 MW Offshore Wind Turbine
  77. ^ Gamesa 5.0 MW
  78. ^ Gamesa launches its new G136-4.5 MW turbine, designed for low-wind sites
  79. ^ Gamesa G136-4.5 MW
  80. ^ Gamesa 4.5 MW
  81. ^ a b 4.1-113 Offshore Wind Turbine
  82. ^ a b c d e f Technical Parameters
  83. ^ Siemens 3.0 MW Direct Drive Wind Turbines
  84. ^ V112-3.0 MW
  85. ^ V112-3.0 MW Offshore
  86. ^ V90-3.0
  87. ^ a b Mingyang Wind Power
  88. ^ SL3000 Series Wind Turbine
  89. ^ a b GE's 2.75 MW Wind Turbines
  90. ^ a b c d GW 2.5 PMDD Wind Turbine
  91. ^ E-70 / 2,300 kW
  92. ^ Siemens SWT-2.3-113
  93. ^ Siemens Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-108
  94. ^ Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-101
  95. ^ Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-93
  96. ^ S88 MARK II DFIG 2.25 MW
  97. ^ Introducing the S9X
  98. ^ S88-2.1 MW
  99. ^ E-82 E2 / 2,000 kW
  100. ^ Gamesa launches a new turbine, the G114-2.0 MW: maximum returns for low-wind sites
  101. ^ []
  102. ^ Gamesa maintained profitability and sound financial position in a situation of economic weakness and regulatory uncertainty
  103. ^ Gamesa G97-2.0 MW IIIA
  104. ^ Gamesa supplies 9 latest generation wind turbines to wind farms in Albacete
  105. ^ Gamesa G87-2.0 MW
  106. ^ Gamesa G80-2.0 MW
  107. ^ a b c Vestas 2MW
  108. ^ a b c GE's 1.6 MW Wind Turbines
  109. ^ GE 1.5-77 Wind Turbines
  110. ^ GE 1.5 MW Wind Turbine
  111. ^ GE1.5
  112. ^ a b c d GW 1.5 PMDD Wind Turbine
  113. ^ a b c d Mingyang Wind Power
  114. ^ S82-1.5 MW
  115. ^ Eternal Power from Sinovel
  116. ^ S66-1.25 MW
  117. ^ a b S64-1.25 MW
  118. ^ Enercon Product Overview
  119. ^ Gamesa G58-850 kW
  120. ^ Gamesa G52-850 kW
  121. ^ E-53 / 800 kW
  122. ^ E-48 / 800 kW
  123. ^ S52-600 kW

Further reading

  • Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition (2001), ISBN 0-471-48997-2
  • Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875, TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 1996–2001
  • David, Macaulay, New Way Things Work, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Copyright 1994–1999, pg.41-42
  • Erich Hau Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Birkhäuser, 2006 ISBN 3-540-24240-6 (preview on Google Books)
  • David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering, Second Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN #: 9780791802601

External links

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