Zero-emissions vehicle

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The GEM xLXD Neighborhood Electric Vehicle is a zero-emissions vehicle, Washington, D.C.

A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power.[1][2] Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates (soot), hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board (CARB) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) definitions, the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds, several air toxics, and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.[3] Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles; electric vehicles, which have no tailpipe; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen that only emit water.

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[edit] Terminology

[edit] California zero-emissions vehicle

The CARB ZEV program is a program worked out by the Californian government to promote the use of zero emission vehicles.[4] The program goal is to reduce the pervasive air pollution affecting the main metropolitan areas in the state, particularly in Los Angeles, where prolonged pollution episodes are frequent.[5]

The first definition has its origin in the California ZEV rule, adopted as part of the 1990 Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV I) Program mandated by CARB.[5][6] The ZEV regulation has evolved and been modifed several times since 1990, and several new partial or low-emission categories were created and defined as follows:[2][6][7][8]

  • LEV (Low Emission Vehicle): The least stringent emission standard for all new cars sold in California beyond 2004.
  • ULEV (Ultra Low Emission Vehicle): 50% cleaner than the average new 2003 model year vehicle.
  • SULEV (Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle): These vehicles emit substantially lower levels of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides and particulate matter than conventional vehicles. They are 90% cleaner than the average new 2003 model year vehicle.
  • PZEV (Partial Zero Emission Vehicle): Meets SULEV tailpipe standards, has a 15-year / 150,000 mile warranty, and zero evaporative emissions. These vehicles are 80% cleaner than the average 2002 model year car.
  • AT PZEV (Advanced Technology PZEV): These are advanced technology vehicles that meet PZEV standards and include ZEV enabling technology. They are 80% cleaner than the average 2002 model year car.
  • ZEV (Zero Emission Vehicle): Zero tailpipe emissions, and 98% cleaner than the average new 2003 model year vehicle.

The Low-Emission Vehicle Program is currently under revision to define modificated ZEV regulations for 2015 models.[6][9][10]

[edit] Other definitions

Other countries might have a slightly different definition of ZEV, noteworthy the more recent inclusion of greenhouse gases, as many European rules now regulate carbon dioxide CO2 emissions.

CARB role in regulating greenhouse gases began in 2004 based on the 2002 Pavley Act (AB 1493), but blocked by lawsuits and by EPA in 2007, by rejecting the required waiver. Additional responsibilities were granted to CARB by California's Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32), which includes the mandate to set low-carbon fuel standards.[5]

[edit] Types of zero-emission vehicles

The Indian REVA electric car is now commercialized in several European countries
General Motors EV1, a battery electric vehicle, now retracted from the market
Miles Electric Vehicles, XS500 future full electric vehicle capable of 85mph, estimated price of $35,000.

Ordinary bicycles, recumbent bicycles, and other derivatives as velomobiles, cabin cycles and freight bicycles are probably the most well known zero-emissions transport surface vehicles.

Besides these human-powered vehicles, animal powered vehicles and battery electric vehicles (which besides cars also feature aircraft, electric boats, ...) also do not emit any of the above pollutants, nor any CO2 gases during use. Of course, this is a particularly important quality in densely populated areas, where the health of residents can be severely affected. However, the production of the fuels that power ZEVs, such as the production of electricity or hydrogen from a coal-fired power plant, may produce more or less emissions per mile than the emissions produced from a conventional gasoline powered vehicle, depending on the energy source. A well-to-wheel life cycle assessment is necessary to understand the emissions implications associated with operating a ZEV.

Other zero emission vehicle technologies include plug-in hybrids (eg ICE/electric battery) when in electric mode, some plug-in hybrids in both recharging and electric mode (eg fuel cell/electric battery, compressed air engine/electric battery), liquid nitrogen vehicles, hydrogen vehicles (utilizing fuel cells or converted internal combustion engines), and compressed air vehicles typically recharged by slow (home) or fast (road station) electric compressors, flywheel energy storage vehicles, solar powered cars, and tribrids.

Segway Personal Transporters (PTs) are two-wheeled, self-balancing, battery-powered machines that are eleven times more energy-efficient than the average American car. Operating on two lithium-ion batteries, the Segway PT produces zero emissions during operation, and utilizes a negligible amount of electricity while charging via a standard wall outlet. For more details, read their whitepaper, "The Role of the Segway PT in Emissions Reduction".

Finally, especially for boats (although ground vessels operating on wind exist) and other watercraft, regular and special sails (as rotorsails, wing sails, turbo sails, skysails exist that can propel it emissionless. Also, for larger ships (as tankers, container vessels, ...), nuclear power is also used (though not commonly).

[edit] Current vehicles in common public transport

Electric trains, High-speed rail, subways, sail-powered boats, trolleybuses, trams, electric buses, and cycle rickshaws.

[edit] Current vehicles in common private transport

Electric cars, electric boats, sail-powered boats, bicycles, recumbent bicycles, velomobiles, cabin cycles, freight bicycles

[edit] Incentives

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Subsidies for public transport

Japanese public transport is being driven in the direction of zero emissions due to growing environmental concern. Honda has launched a conceptual bus which features exercise machines to the rear of the vehicle to generate kinetic energy used for propulsion.

Due to the stop-start nature of idling in public transport, regenerative braking may be a possibility for public transport systems of the future. After all, public transport costs councils money, so money well spent on saving fuel is money saved.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ California Air Resources Board (2009-03-09). "Glossary of Air Pollution Terms: ZEV". http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm#Z. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  2. ^ a b Christine & Scott Gable. "What is a ZEV - Zero Emissions Vehicle?". About.com: Hybrid Carts & Alt Fuels. http://alternativefuels.about.com/od/glossary/g/ZEV.htm. Retrieved on 2008-04-21. 
  3. ^ Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center. "Alternative & Advanced Vehicles: Pollutants and Health". Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US DOE. http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/emissions_pollutants.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  4. ^ "California's Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program". Union of Concerned Scientists. 2009-01-30. http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_vehicles/solutions/advanced_vehicles_and_fuels/californias-zero-emission-2.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  5. ^ a b c Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009), Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 24 and 189-191, ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7 
  6. ^ a b c "Zero-Emission Vehicle Legal and Regulatory Activities: The ZEV Program Timeline". California Air Resources Board. 2008-12-18. http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/background/background.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  7. ^ "Fact Sheet: California Vehicle Emissions" (pdf). California Air Resources Board. 2004-04-08. http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/factsheets/calemissions.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  8. ^ Sherry Boschert (2006), Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada, pp. 15-28, ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4  See the box "Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Mandate Timeline", pp. 23-28
  9. ^ "California Air Resources Board Votes to Modify ZEV Program in Short-Term; Complete Overhaul to Begin for New ZEV II". Green Car Congress. 2008-03-27. http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/03/california-air.html. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 
  10. ^ "Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Program". California Air Resources Board. 2009-02-27. http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/zevprog/zevprog.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-21. 

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