Low-carbon economy

A Low-Carbon Economy (LCE) or Low-Fossil-Fuel Economy (LFFE) is an economy which has a minimal output of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the biosphere or is in the process of decarbonisation. It specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Recently, most of scientific and public opinion has come to the conclusion there is such an accumulation of GHGs (especially CO₂) in the atmosphere due to anthropogenic causes, that the climate is changing. The over-concentrations of these gases is producing global warming that affects long-term climate, with negative impacts on humanity in the foreseeable future. Globally implemented LCE's therefore, are proposed as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change, and as a precursor to the more advanced, zero-carbon society and renewable-energy economy.

Rationale and aims

Nations seek to become low-carbon economies as a part of a national global warming mitigation strategy. A comprehensive strategy to manage global warming is carbon neutrality, geoengineering and adaptation to global warming.

The aim of a LCE is to integrate all aspects of itself from its manufacturing, agriculture, transportation and power-generation etc. around technologies that produce energy and materials with little GHG emission; and thus, around populations, buildings, machines and devices which use those energies and materials efficiently, and, dispose of or recycle its wastes so as to have a minimal output of GHGs. Furthermore, it has been proposed that to make the transition to an LCE economically viable we would have to attribute a cost(per unit output) to GHGs through means such as emissions trading and/or a carbon tax.

Some nations are presently low carbon: societies which are not heavily industrialised or populated. In order to avoid climate change on a global level, all nations considered carbon intensive societies and societies which are heavily populated might have to become zero-carbon societies and economies. Several of these countries have pledged to cut their emissions by 100% via offsetting emissions rather than ceasing all emissions (carbon neutrality); in other words, emitting will not cease but will continue and will be offset to a different geographical area.

Energy policy

Renewable energy and energy efficiency

See also: Renewable energy commercialization

Worldwide installed wind power capacity 1997–2020 [MW], history and predictions. Data source: WWEA

Solar array at Nellis Solar Power Plant. These panels track the sun in one axis. Credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Larry E. Reid Jr.

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Recent advances in technology and policy will allow renewable energy and energy efficiency to play major roles in displacing fossil fuels, meeting global energy demand while reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Renewable energy technologies are being rapidly commercialized and, in conjunction with efficiency gains, can achieve far greater emissions reductions than either could independently.

Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables. During the five-years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected photovoltaics increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60-percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

Energy efficiency gains in recent decades have been significant, but there is still much more that can be achieved. With a concerted effort and strong policies in place, future energy efficiency improvements are likely to be very large. Heat is one of many forms of "energy wastage" that could be captured to significantly increase useful energy without burning more fossil fuels.

Nuclear power and CCS

Nuclear power, or, the proposed strategies of carbon capture and storage (CCS) have been proposed as the primary means to achieve a LCE while continuing to exploit non-renewable resources; there is concern, however, with the matter of spent-nuclear-fuel storage, security and the uncertainty of costs and time needed to successfully implement CCS worldwide and with guarantees that the stored emissions will not leak into the biosphere.

Primary Sector

Agriculture

See also: Low carbon diet

Foodstuffs should be produced as close as possible to the final consumers (preferably within walking/cycling distance). This will reduce the amount of carbon-based energy necessary to transport the foodstuffs. Consumers can also buy fresh food rather than processed food, since carbon-based energy might be used to process the food. Cooking presents another opportunity to conserve energy. Energy could be saved if farmers produced more foods that people would eat raw.[weasel words][citation needed]

Also, most of the agricultural facilities in the developed world are mechanized due to rural electrification. Rural electrification has produced significant productivity gains, but it also uses a lot of energy. For this and other reasons (such as transport costs) in a low-carbon society, rural areas would need available supplies of renewably produced electricity.[citation needed]

Irrigation can be one of the main components of an agricultural facility's energy consumption. In parts of California it can be up to 90%. In the low carbon economy, irrigation equipment will be maintained and continually updated and farms will use less irrigation water.

Crops

Different crops require different amounts of energy input. For example, glasshouse crops, irrigated crops, and orchards require a lot of energy to maintain, while row crops and field crops don’t need as much maintenance. Those glasshouse and irrigated crops that do exist will incorporate the following improvements:

Glasshouse crops

• environmental control systems
• heat recovery using condensers
• heat storage using buffer tanks
• heat retention using thermal screens
• alternative fuels (e.g. waste wood)
• cogeneration (heat and power)

Irrigated arable crops

• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• variable speed drives on pumps

Livestock

Livestock operations can also use a lot of energy depending on how they are run. Feed lots use animal feed made from corn, soybeans, and other crops. Energy must be expended to produce these crops, process and transport them. Free-range animals find their own vegetation to feed on. The farmer may expend energy to take care of that vegetation, but not nearly as much as the farmer who grows cereal and oil-seed crops.

Many livestock operations currently use a lot of energy to water their livestock. In the low-carbon economy, such operations will use more water conservation methods such as rainwater collection, water cisterns, etc. and they will also pump/distribute that water with on-site renewable energy sources (most likely wind and solar).

Due to rural electrification, most agricultural facilities in the developed world use a lot of electricity. In a low-carbon economy, farms will be run and equipped to allow for greater energy efficiency. The dairy industry, for example, will incorporate the following changes:

Irrigated Dairy

• heat recovery on milk vats
• variable speed drives on motors/pumps
• heat recovery from hot water wash
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• biodigester with cogen (heat & power)
• vat wrap
• solar water heating
• ripple control
• ice bank
• chemical substitute for hot water wash

Hunting and Fishing

Fishing is quite energy intensive. Improvements such as heat recovery on refrigeration and trawl net technology will be common in the low-carbon economy.

Forestry

Main article: Wood economy

In the low-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil based carbon reserves too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations in order to maximize output.

Mining

Main article: Gas flare

Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year and now accounts for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. The World Bank estimates that 100 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually, an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France, twice the annual gas consumption of Africa, three quarters of Russian gas exports, or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 20 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 75% of emissions, and twenty for 90%. The largest flaring operations occur in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The leading contributors to gas flaring are (in declining order): Nigeria, Russia, Iran, Algeria, Mexico, Venezuela, Indonesia, and the United States.

Secondary Sector

Basic metals Processing

• high efficiency electric motors
• induction furnaces
• heat recovery

Nonmetallic product Processing

• variable speed drives
• injection molding - replace hydraulic with electric servo motors

Wood Processing

• high efficiency motors
• high efficiency fans
• dehumidifier driers

Paper and Pulp Making

• variable speed drives
• high efficiency motors

Food Processing

• high efficiency boilers
• heat recovery e.g. refrigeration
• solar hot water for pre-heating
• bio fuels e.g. tallow, wood

Tertiary Sector

Retail

Retail operations in the low-carbon economy will have several new features. One will be high efficiency lighting such as compact fluorescent, halogen, and eventually LED light sources. Many retail stores will also feature roof-top solar panel arrays. These make sense because solar panels produce the most energy during the daytime and during the summer. These are the same times that electricity is the most expensive and also the same times that stores use the most electricity.

Transportation Services

• More energy efficiency and alternative propulsion:
  • Increased focus on fuel efficient vehicle shapes and configurations, with more vehicle electrification, particularly through plug-in hybrids.
  • More alternative and flex-fuel vehicles (based on local conditions and availability)
  • Driver training for more fuel efficiency.
  • Low carbon-biofuels cellulosic (biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol )
  • Petroleum fuel surcharges will be a more significant part of consumer costs.
• Less international trade of physical objects, despite more overall trade (as measure by value of goods)
• Greater use of marine and electric rail transport, less use of air and truck transport.
• Increased bicycle and public transport usage, less reliance on private motor vehicles.
• More pipeline capacity for common fluid commodities such as water, ethanol, butanol, natural gas, petroleum, and hydrogen (in addition to gasoline and diesel).

See

Health Services

There have been some moves to investigate the ways and extent to which health systems contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and how they may need to change to become part of a low-carbon world. The Sustainable Development Unit of the NHS in the UK is one of the first official bodies to have been set up in this area, whilst organisations such as the Campaign for Greener Healthcare are also producing influential changes at a clinical level. This work includes

• Quantification of where the health services emissions stem from.
• Information on the environmental impacts of alternative models of treatment and service provision

Some of the suggested changes needed are:

• Greater efficiency and lower ecological impact of energy, buildings, and procurement choices (e.g. in-patient meals, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment).
• A shift from focusing solely on cure to prevention, through the promotion of healthier, lower carbon lifestyles, e.g. diets lower in red meat and dairy products, walking or cycling wherever possible, better town planning to encourage more outdoor lifestyles.
• Improving public transport and liftsharing options for transport to and from hospitals and clinics.

Initial steps

Internationally, the most prominent early step in the direction of a low-carbon economy was the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on February 16, 2005, under which most industrialized countries committed to reduce their carbon emissions. Importantly, all member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development except the United States have ratified the protocol.

Countries

Costa Rica

Costa Rica sources much of its energy needs from renewables and is undertaking reforestation projects. In 2007 the Costa Rican government announced the commitment for Costa Rica to become the first carbon neutral country by 2021.

Iceland

Main article: Renewable energy in Iceland

Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland, and since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's primary energy and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity. As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and thus limitless and costs Icelanders almost nothing. Iceland seeks carbon neutrality and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.

Australia

Main article: Renewable energy in Australia

Australia has implemented schemes to start the transition to a low carbon economy but carbon neutrality has not been mentioned and since the introduction of such scheme emissions have increased. The current government has mentioned the concept but has done little and has pledged to lower emissions by 5-15%. In 2001, The Howard Government introduced a Mandatory Renewable Energy Target (MRET) scheme. In 2007, the Government revised the MRET - 20 per cent of Australia's electricity supply to come from renewable energy sources by 2020. In 2009, the Rudd Government will legislate a short-term emissions reduction target, another revision to the Mandatory Renewable Energy Target as well as an emissions trading scheme. Renewable energy sources provide 8-10% of the nation's energy and this figure will increase significantly in the coming years. However coal dependence and exporting conflicts with the concept of Australia as a low-carbon economy. Carbon neutral businesses have received no incentive; they have voluntarily done so. Carbon offset companies offer assessments based on life cycle impacts to businesses that seek carbon neutrality. The Carbon Reduction Institute is one such offset provider, that has produced a Low Carbon Directory to promote a low carbon economy in Australia.

China

Main article: Renewable energy in China

In China, the city of Dongtan is to be built to produce zero net greenhouse gas emissions.

Chinese State Council has announced its aim to cut China's carbon dioxide emission per unit of GDP by 40%-45% in 2020 from 2005 levels.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the Climate Change Act outlining a framework for the transition to a low-carbon economy became law on November 26, 2008. This legislation requires a 80% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020. Thus, the UK became the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law.

A meeting at the Royal Society on 17–18 November 2008 concluded that an integrated approach, making best use of all available technologies is required to move towards a low carbon future. It was suggested by participants that it would be possible to move to a low carbon economy within a few decades, but that 'urgent and sustained action is needed on several fronts'.

United States

Low Carbon Economy Act of 2007.

Cities

Companies are planning large scale developments without using fossil fuels. Development plans such as those by World Wide Assets LLC for entire cities using only geothermal energy for electricity, geothermal desalination, and employing full recycling systems for water and waste are under development (2006) in Mexico and Australia.

Education

The University of Edinburgh has a Carbon Management MSc. As well as a Carbon Finance MSc.

The University of East Anglia has a Strategic Carbon Management MBA.

The myclimate climate education offers capacity building tools like exhibitions, games, schoolbooks and courses for young people, adults and businesses.

See also

• Alternative propulsion
• Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
• Carbon neutrality
• Carbon Process Management
• Coal phase out
• Comparisons of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions
• Electric vehicle
• Emission standard
• Emissions trading
• Energy policy
• Environmental economics
• Low-carbon building
• Low Carbon Communities
• Low carbon diet
• Low-carbon emission
• Low-carbon fuel standard
• One Watt Initiative
• Petroleum phase out
• Renewable-energy economy
• Sustainable development
• World energy resources and consumption

External links

• Senate.gov: The “Low Carbon Economy Act” of 2007 and Status
• British Petroleum: Gas and Power in a Low Carbon Economy
• DTI UK: Creating a low carbon economy
• MSNBC.com Europe eyes 'low-carbon economy'
• Hydrogen Economy
• Grant Thornton International Business Report Energy & Environment survey
• New "carbon revolution" urged to slow warming