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A single bell curve like these two was featured on the cover of the controversial^[1]^[2] book on race and intelligence The Bell Curve.^[relevant?] Some regard this book as solid science, while others consider it a modern example of scientific racism.^[3]^[4]^[relevant?] These are idealized normal curves comparing the IQs of Blacks and Whites in the US in 1981.^[5]

Race and intelligence are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. The possibility of a relationship between race and intelligence has been a topic of considerable speculation, study, and debate, especially since the 19th century.^[6] The contemporary debate focuses on the nature, causes, and importance of racial and ethnic differences in intelligence test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. In the 19th and early 20th centuries research on race and intelligence was often used to argue that one race was superior to another, justifying poor outcomes and treatment for the "inferior race".^[7] Some early opinions about the differences among races grew out of stereotypes about non-whites developed during the period of colonialism and slavery.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]

Modern theories and research on race and intelligence are often grounded in two controversial assumptions:

the social categories of race and ethnicity are concordant with genetic categories, such as biogeographic ancestry.
Intelligence is quantitatively measurable (see psychometrics) by modern tests and is dominated by a unitary general cognitive ability.

Much of the evidence currently cited is based on IQ testing in the United States. There is much less data from other nations, in particular the developing world, and conclusions from the US data cannot automatically be generalized to the world as a whole. While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups in the US overlap and often have a comparable range, groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale.^[12] Similar clustering has been reported with related variables, such as school achievement, reaction time, and brain size.^[13] Most variation in IQ in the U.S. occurs within individual families, not between races.^[14] However, even small differences in average IQ at the group level might theoretically have large effects on social outcomes.

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain why average IQ varies among racial-ethnic groups. Certain environmental factors, such as nutrition, are thought to moderate IQ in children,^[15] and other influences have been hypothesized, including education level, richness of the early home environment, and other social, cultural, or economic factors. The primary focus of the scientific debate is whether group IQ differences also reflect a genetic component. Hereditarianism hypothesizes that a genetic contribution to intelligence could include genes linked to neuron structure or function, brain size or metabolism, or other physiological differences which could vary with biogeographic ancestry.

The findings of this field have engendered significant controversy. Press coverage has given considerable positive attention to theories of genetic racial differences in intelligence even though there is no consensus among researchers regarding their validity.^[16] Upon publication, The Bell Curve, a controversial book that asserted that the gap in black and white IQ scores was, in part, genetic, received a great deal of positive publicity, including cover stories in Newsweek The New Republic, and The New York Times Book Review. Still, few strong propionates of the genetic theories of differences in intelligence do not think that press coverage has been positive enough. For example, media opinion of the role of genetic and environmental factors in explaining individual and group differences in IQ was studied in 1988 by conservative researchers Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman. They found it to differ from the opinion of mainstream experts.^[17]

Some critics question the fairness and validity of cognitive testing and racial categorization, as well as the reliability of the studies and the motives of the authors, on both sides. This has included accusations of bias based on the political ideals of the researchers or the funding agencies, such as the Pioneer Fund. Some critics fear the misuse of the research, question its utility, or feel that comparing the intelligence of racial groups is itself unethical. The disparity in average IQ among racial groups does not mean that all members of one group are more intelligent than all members of another. Robert A. Gordon, a Pioneer Fund media critic, ranking group averages "high" to "low" is not the same things as moral ranking from "good" to "bad" or an overall ranking of "superior" to "inferior".^[18] The conclusions of a few researchers: that racial groups in the US vary in average IQ scores, and the hypothesis that a genetic component may be involved, have led to heated academic debates that have spilled over into the public sphere.

Observations about race and intelligence also have important applications for critics of the media portrayal of different races. Stereotypes in media such as books, music, film, and television can reenforce old racist ideas and may influence the perceived opportunities for success in academics for minority students.^[19]^[20]

Template:Race and intelligence vertical navbox

Background information

History

In the 19th and early 20th century research on race and intelligence was often used to confirm that one race was 'superior' to another^[21]. Francisco Gil-White, author of Resurrecting Racism: The Modern Attack on Black People Using Phony Science and Stephen Jay Gould author of The Mismeasure of Man have suggested that some modern research has similar motives. Researchers such as Amanda Thompson and Elazar Barkan have suggested that "Scientific racism" has been used to perpetuate the idea of the intellectual inferiority of African Americans and that it was used to justify slavery and segregated education in America.

Slavery

Anthropologist Franz Boas was a prominent 20th C. critic of claims that intelligence differed among races.

Because the Atlantic slave trade raised moral questions from its inception scientific theories about the mental capacities of Black people were provided to justify the enslavement of Africans. According to Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen during this time period the Black man was described as uniquely fitted for bondage because of what researchers at the time called "his primitive psychological organization."^[22] Hence, a well-known physician of the ante-bellum South, Samuel Cartwright of Louisiana, had a psychiatric explanation for runaway slaves. He diagnosed their attempts to gain freedom as a mental illness and coined the term "drapetomania" to describe it.^[23]

Scientific arguments about the mental inferiority of Black people were instrumental in keeping slavery alive as in institution in the United States. It was widely regarded that Black people lacked the mental capacity to handle freedom. Secretary of State John C. Calhoun arguing for the extension of slavery in 1844 said "Here (scientific confirmation) is proof of the necessity of slavery. The African is incapable of self-care and sinks into lunacy under the burden of freedom. It is a mercy to give him the guardianship and protection from mental death."

The writings of Sir Francis Galton, a British psychologist, spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity and eugenics.^[24] Galton estimated from his field observations in Africa that the African people were 'two grades' below Anglo-Saxons' position in the normal frequency distribution of general mental ability his work was seen as scientific validation of Africans' mental inferiority compared with Anglo-Saxons.^[25]

Jim Crow and segregation

The scientific debate on the contribution of nature versus nurture to individual and group differences in intelligence can be traced to at least the mid-19th century.^[26] Charles Darwin wrote in his Descent of Man (VII, On the races of Man): "Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual faculties."

Lewis Terman wrote in The measurement of intelligence in 1916

"(Black and other ethnic minority children) are uneducable beyond the nearest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever make them intelligent voters or capable citizens in the sense of the world…their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stock from which they come…Children of this group should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. They cannot master abstractions, but they can be made efficient workers…There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusual prolific breeding."

The opinion that there are differences in the brain sizes and brain structures of different racial and ethnic groups was widely held and studied during the 19th century and early 20th century.^[27] Average ethnic and racial group differences in IQ were first directly observed when analyzing the data from standardized mental tests administered on large scales during World War I.

Foremost amongst those researching this was Stanley Porteus of the University of Melbourne, who devised his maze test as early as 1919, applying it in his study of the Aborigines in the Kimberley region and Northern Territory of Australia (1929) and later the Kalahari tribesmen of southern Africa (1934). He also used it to assess the results of pre-frontal brain surgery on mental performance, publishing his results in 1931.^[28]

W.O. Brown, writing in The Journal of Negro History in 1931, wrote regarding early intelligence tests:

After the World War and during the severe agitation for the restriction of immigration, aimed especially at the Southeastern Europeans, tests came into a new usage...the tests revealed the inferior intelligence of various racial and nationality groups...The Southeastern Europeans and the Negroes especially came of badly in these tests...The results of the tests elevated their dogma of racial inequality from a mere prejudice to the dignity of a scientifically validated opinion.^[29]

Beginning in the 1930s, race difference research and hereditarianism — the belief that genetics are the primary cause of differences in intelligence among human groups — began to fall out of favor in psychology and anthropology after major internal debates.^[30] In anthropology this occurred in part due to the advocacy of Franz Boas, who in his 1938 edition of The Mind of Primitive Man wrote, "there is nothing at all that could be interpreted as suggesting any material difference in the mental capacity of the bulk of the Negro population as compared with the bulk of the White population."^[31] The hereditarian position was challenged by Boas' claim that cranial vault size had increased significantly in the U.S. from one generation to the next, because racial differences in such characteristics had been among the strongest arguments for a genetic role.

Modern work

File:Charles Murray.gif

Charles Murray (pictured) and Richard Herrnstein started the contemporary debate with The Bell Curve in 1994.

File:Stephen Jay Gould.png

In The Mismeasure of Man, updated in 1996, Stephen Jay Gould criticized many aspects of IQ research.

Inspired by the American eugenics movement, Nazi Germany implemented the T-4 Euthanasia Program in which roughly 200,000 mentally and physically disabled Germans were killed, and about 400,000 sterilized. The association of hereditarianism with Nazi Germany created an modern academic environment that has been very skeptical of suggestions that there are racial or ethnic differences in measures of intellectual or academic ability and that these differences are primarily determined by genetic factors.^[32]

In 1961, the psychologist Henry Garrett coined the term equalitarian dogma to describe the then politically fashionable view that there were no race differences in intelligence, or if there were, they were purely the result of environmental factors. Those who questioned these views often put their careers at risk.^[33]^[relevant?]

The contemporary scholarly debate on race and intelligence may be traced^{[neutrality is disputed]} to Arthur Jensen's 1969 publication in the Harvard Educational Review of "How Much Can We Boost IQ and School Achievement?"^[34] In this paper, he wrote on some of the major issues that characterize the genetic hypothesis^[35] of racial IQ differences, and on compensatory educational programs. Reports on Jensen's article appeared in Time, Newsweek, Life, U.S. News & World Report, and The New York Times Magazine.

In the 1980's Nobel Prize winner for his work on the development of transistors, William Shockley, postulated that the higher rate of reproduction among US African Americans was having what he termed a "dysgenic" effect (meaning an opposite of eugenics), ; especially as influenced by welfare subsidies (e.g., AFDC), which he opined, unintentionally encouraged childbearing by less productive mothers. ^[36]. He described this work as the most important work of his career, even though it severely tarnished his reputation. Shockley's published writings on this topic, were largely based on the research of Cyril Burt. Shockley also proposed that individuals with IQs below 100 be paid to undergo voluntary sterilization ^[37]. He was subsequently criticized by the media; however his involvement brought public recognition to several controversial topics. ^[38]

Press attention returned to the issue of race and intelligence in 1994 with the publication of The Bell Curve, which included two chapters on the subject of racial difference in intelligence and related life outcomes. In response to The Bell Curve, Stephen Jay Gould updated The Mismeasure of Man in 1996.^[39] Among other things, he criticized the IQ test as a measure of intelligence, citing what he perceived as inherent racial and social biases as well as systematic flaws in the testing process.

Race

See also: Race and multilocus allele clusters, Race (historical definitions)

Racial distinctions are generally made on the basis of skin color, facial features, inferred ancestry, national origin and self-identification in the United States. In an ongoing debate, some geneticists argue race is neither a meaningful concept nor a useful heuristic device,^[40] and even that genetic differences among groups are biologically meaningless,^[41] on the basis that more genetic variation exists within such races than among them,^[42] and that racial traits overlap without discrete boundaries.^[43] Concordant with this, a survey of cultural and physical anthropologists done in 1999^[44] found that the concept of race was rejected by 69% of physical anthropologists and 80% of cultural anthropologists. Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful,^[45] that these categories correspond with clusters inferred from multilocus genetic data,^[46] and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.^[47]

Worldwide, human populations are geographically bounded into five less than perfectly distinct continental areas: the Americas, Eurasia (including Europe, North Africa and West Asia), East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Pacific Islands (including Australia).^[48] At least in the United States, self-identified racial labels correspond to geographic regions of genetic ancestry, with only a small number of individuals showing genetic cluster membership different from their self-identified race/ethnicity.^[49] People labeled Blacks have most of their ancestors from sub-Saharan Africa, Whites from Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, and East Asians from the north-western Pacific Rim. Hispanics form a genetically diverse group that includes many recent U.S. immigrants of mixed ancestry, and are more often called an ethnic group.

It is well known that many alleles vary in frequency across (and within) human populations. Most of this variation is selectively neutral, but a significant number show evidence of recent positive selection.^[50] These include genes involved in brain development and other neuronal functions, which have variants that have spread to high frequencies under selective pressure and now occur in substantially different frequencies in different global populations.^[51] The actual functions of these genes, and their effect, if any, on IQ is unknown. (Discussed below.)

The political, social and cultural structure of the United States is still weighted by race. It was only in the 1960s that racial discrimination became illegal in many areas of public and private life, including employment and housing, and some consider discrimination to remain prevalent. The national and state governments of the United States employ racial categorization in the census, law enforcement, and innumerable other ways. Many political organizations intend to represent the interests of specific racial groups. See the articles Race and Race (U.S. Census) for further discussion.

Intelligence testing

Intelligence is most commonly measured using IQ tests. These tests are often geared to be good measures of the psychometric variable g (for general intelligence factor), and other tests that measure g (for example, the Armed Forces Qualifying Test and the SAT) also serve as measures of cognitive ability.

All such tests are often called "intelligence tests," though the use of the term "intelligence" is itself controversial. It is clear, however, that performance in these tests correlates with performance in similar life tasks (school grades and to a lower degree college grades). The correlation with many real-world results is lower. For example, while the correlation of IQ with job performance is strong, income is modestly correlated and accumulated wealth is only weakly correlated. The hereditary transmission of wealth via IQ is near zero. As commonly used, "IQ test" denotes any test of cognitive ability, and "IQ" is used as shorthand for scores on tests of cognitive ability. Some critics question the validity of all IQ testing or claim that there are aspects of "intelligence" not reflected in IQ tests. Historically, criticisms of the validity of IQ testing focused primarily on questions of "test bias", which has many related meanings. Several conclusions about tests of cognitive ability are now largely accepted by intelligence researchers:^[52]

IQ scores measure many, but not all of the qualities that people mean by intelligent or smart (for example, IQ does not measure creativity, wisdom, or personality)
IQ scores are fairly stable over much of a person's life
IQ tests are predictive of school and job performance, to a degree that does not significantly vary by socio-economic or racial-ethnic background
For people living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world, cognitive ability is substantially heritable, and while the impact of family environment on the IQ of children is substantial, after adolescence this effect becomes difficult to detect.

Research

Explanations

Introduction

File:TBC-BW-IQ-SES-withDiff.png

According to a 1975 study cited by a 1995 report released by the American Psychological Association, the black-white score gap is not eliminated when groups or individuals are matched for SES. The report concludes that no simple income- and education-based index can adequately describe the situation of African Americans^[53]. A recent 1996 study using multiple socio-economic factors have accounted for 80% of the gap, and suggest that any remaining gap is statistically insignificant.^[54]

Most intelligence researchers believe that IQ differences among individuals reflect the general intelligence factor, g.^[55] The nature of g itself is still an active area of research, and the question of whether IQ differences among groups are substantially genetic is hotly contested.

According to the American Psychological Association, the difference between the average IQ scores of Blacks and Whites in the U.S. cannot be attributed to any obvious biases in test construction or cultural biases, as opposed to more occult environmental or genetic causes.^[56] Evidence against test construction and cultural bias includes the internal consistency of item difficulty for all groups, the equivalent validity of tests in predicting academic and occupational outcomes for all groups, and the persistence of the IQ gap on relatively culture-free tests.^[57]

Although IQ differences between individuals is highly heritable, this does not mean that average IQ differences between racial groups are necessarily genetic in origin, because estimates of heritability depend on the range of environments tested^[58]. High heritability by itself is not informative about group differences, so any inferences made from within group heritability will depend on additional considerations.^[59] However, many scholars agree that no considerations of heritabilty are sufficient if group differences are caused by environmental factors that uniquely and uniformly affect all members of one group but not another^[60].

Surveys of academic opinion

A survey was conducted in 1987 of a broad sample of 1,020 scholars in specialties that would give them reason to be knowledgeable about IQ (but not necessarily about race). The survey was given to members of the American Education Research Association, National Council on Measurement in Education, American Psychological Association, American Sociological Association, Behavior Genetics Association, and Cognitive Science Society. According to the report, regarding the question "The source of black-white difference in IQ":

This is perhaps the central question in the IQ controversy. Respondents were asked to express their opinion of the role of genetic differences in the black-white IQ differential. Forty-five percent believe the difference to be a product of both genetic and environmental variation, compared to only 15% who feel the difference is entirely due to environmental variation. Twenty-four percent of experts do not believe there are sufficient data to support any reasonable opinion, and 14% did not respond to the question. Eight experts (1%) indicate a belief in an entirely genetic determination.^[61]

Robert Sternberg cautioned against supposing that the survey represented anything but opinion saying, "science isn't done by majority rule".^[62] Respondents on average called themselves slightly left of center politically, but political and social opinions accounted for less than 10% of the variation in responses. Carol Swain, author of The New White Nationalism reacted with some dismay to the survey, stating:

At least one important survey suggests that a belief in the biological inferiority of some races in regard to intelligence is more common than generally supposed. Smith College professor Stanley Rothman and Harvard researcher Mark Snyderman surveyed a sample of mostly scientific experts in the field of educational psychology in the late 1980s and found that 53 percent believed IQ differences between whites and African Americans were at least partly genetic in origin, while only 17 percent attributed the IQ differences to environmental factors alone (the remainder either believed the data was currently insufficient to decide the issue or refused to answer the question).

According to the American Psychological Association's 1995 task force report on intelligence research:

It is sometimes suggested that the Black/White differential in psychometric intelligence is partly due to genetic differences (Jensen, 1972). There is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis.^[63]

The APA subsequently published eleven critical responses in 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for the genetic hypothesis.^[35]^[64] Charles Murray, for instance, responded:

Actually, there is no direct evidence at all, just a wide variety of indirect evidence, almost all of which the task force chose to ignore.^[65]

The report did agree with many of the non-race-based statements on intelligence made in The Bell Curve^[66] and concludes with a call for more reflection in debates on intelligence and for a "shared and sustained effort" in more research to answer the many unanswered questions that remain.^[67] Coming advances in genetics and genomics are expected to soon provide the ability to test hypotheses about group differences more rigorously than has as yet been possible.^[68]

Researchers who believe that there is no significant genetic contribution to race differences in intelligence include Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, and Template:AYref. Some scientists who emphasize cultural explanations do not necessarily exclude a small genetic influence. Template:A(Y)ref suggests up to 20% genetic influence be included in the cultural explanation. Researchers who believe that there are significant genetic contributions to race differences in intelligence include Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, and Template:AYref.

IQ Data from various sources

The gaps found between the average measures of races or ethnicities varies depending on methods used for racial grouping, the method and setting used to test intelligence^[69], the health and economic situation of the test takers, the interplay between the culture of the person taking the test and the culture of those who made the test, and the period in history when the test was performed.

Depending on the way intelligence is measured a variety of gaps may be found between different racial and ethnic groups. Some groups that perform well on one task may do poorly on others. For example, Moroccan and North American individuals were asked in a study by Richard K. Wagner to remember patterns of Oriental rugs and pictures of everyday objects, such as a rooster and a fish. Moroccans who have long experience in the rug trade seemed to remember rug patterns better than the North American individuals.^[70] Linkewise, in 1979 Robert Serpell had Zambian and English children perform a number of tasks. He found that English children did better on a drawing task, but that Zambian children did better on a wire-shaping task.^[71]

The modern controversy surrounding intelligence and race focuses on the results of IQ studies conducted during the second half of the 20th century, mainly in the United States and some other industrialized nations. On average, a difference of approximately one standard deviation was observed in the US between the mean IQ score of Blacks and Whites as adults. Most recent attempted compilations of average IQ by race place Ashkenazi Jews at the top, followed by East Asians, Whites, Hispanics and Native Americans, and African Americans.^[72] Whether these gaps have narrowed or not, especially regarding children which may or may not later also cause a narrowing for adults, is, as noted below, debated.

Over the years, there has been variation in both the observed average IQ of groups, as well as the relative relationships between the average IQ of groups. Early 20th century measures typically found Blacks on the low end, and Whites on the high end. Based on studies from the 1960s and 1970s, Flynn found a slightly lower average IQ of Japanese- and Chinese American children compared to White counterparts.^[73] Recent contemporary measures place Blacks on the low end, and Asians on the high end. ^[74]

Media portrayal of intelligence differences

Some regard Jar Jar as thinly veiled version of the type of portrayals used in minstrelsy to lampoon the supposed stupidity of Black people.^[75]

Race and intelligence are sometimes portrayed as related in media. People of various races have been portrayed as more or less intelligent in media such as films, books, and newspapers. Likewise, reporting on research into race and intelligence has been criticized: either for giving scientific theories of race too much credit, or for rejecting the theories of some researchers in the name of racial harmony.

Critics of contemporary media have highlighted portrayals of minorities as less intelligent^[76] (or in the case of Asians, on occasion more intelligent^[77]) in films and movies. Entman and Rojeki assert that media images of Blacks may have profound effects on the perceptions by both Blacks and Whites about black intellectual potential.^[78]

Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race John Hoberman writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.^[79]Film director Spike Lee explains that these images have negative impacts "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. "[Now] If you're intelligent, you're called a white guy or girl."^[80]

Blacks are not the only ethnic group in the US to be stereotyped as stupid. Shortly after the large waves of immigration in the 19th century and number of immigrant groups such as the Irish were stereotyped as being more closely related to apes or dogs^[81] and therefore intellectually inferior. This changed after the definition of "white" was expanded to include the Irish.^[82] Unlike other racial stereotypes of intelligence, the 19th century psudo-scientific ideas about of Irish stupidity and inferiority are not supported by most hereditarian proponents of modern race research. Other stereotypes, of Blacks, Jews and Asians endure to this day^[83] as do the findings of Hereditarian researchers about these groups.

Controversies

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Significance of group IQ differences

See also: Practical importance of IQ

Utility of research

Theories of race and intelligence have been challenged on grounds of their utility. Critics want to know what purpose such research could serve and why it has been an intense an area of focus for a few researchers. Some defend the research, saying it has egalitarian aims or that it is pure science, others say that the true motivation for the research is the same as that of the eugenics movement and other forms of scientific racism.^[84]^[85]. Even supporters of intelligence research have described such research as analogous to "working with dynamite" or "dangerous play" in sports^[86].

As to whether research in this area is desirable, John C. Loehlin wrote in 1992, "Research on racial differences in intelligence is desirable if the research is appropriately motivated, honestly done, and adequately communicated." [emphasis original] Defenders of the research suggest that both scientific curiosity and a desire to draw benefits from the research are appropriate motivations. Researchers such as Richard Lynn have suggested that conclusions from the research can help make political decisions, such as the type of educational opportunities and expectations of achievement policy makers should have for people of different races. Researchers such as Charles Murray have used their conclusions to criticize social programs based on racial equality that fail in Murray's eyes to recognize the realities of racial differences.

Sociologist and demographer Reanne Frank says that some race and intelligence research has been abused "The most malignant are the "true believers," who subscribe to the typological distinctions that imply hierarchical rankings of worth across different races. Although this group remains small, the members' work is often widely publicized and well known (e.g., Herrnstein and Murray 1994; Rushton 1991)"^[87]

Potential for bias

Proponents of partly-genetic explanations of race/IQ correlation have often been criticized because much of their work is funded by the Pioneer Fund. The Pioneer Fund has, in turn, been criticized for poor research methods, and even more strongly characterized by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a hate group.

Conversely, supporters of race and intelligence research have accused other scientists of suppressing scientific debate for political purposes. They claim harassment and interference with the work or funding of partly-genetic proponents.

Policy implications

See also: Intelligence and public policy

Public policy implications of IQ and race research are one of the greatest sources of controversy surrounding this issue. Regardless of the source of the gap, most educators agree that it must be addressed. They often advocate equitable funding for education.^[88]^[89]

Some proponents of a genetic^[35] interpretation of the IQ gap, such as Template:A(Y)ref and Template:A(Y)ref, have sometimes argued that their interpretation does not in itself demand any particular policy response: while a conservative/libertarian commentator^[90] may feel the results justify, for example, reductions in affirmative action, a liberal commentator may argue from a Rawlsian point of view (that genetic advantages are undeserved and unjust) for substantial affirmative action.^[91] Since all races have representatives at all levels of the IQ curve, this means any policy based on low IQ affects members of all races.

According to the "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" statement published in Intelligence in 1997:

The research findings neither dictate nor preclude any particular social policy, because they can never determine our goals. They can, however, help us estimate the likely success and side-effects of pursuing those goals via different means.^[92]

While not specifically race-related, policies focused on geographical regions or nations may have disproportionate influences on certain racial groups and on cognitive development. Differences in health care, nutrition, regulation of environmental toxins, and geographic distribution of diseases and control strategies between the developing world and developed nations have all been subjects of policies or policy recommendations (see health and nutrition policies relating to intelligence).

Finally, germinal choice technology may one day be able to select or change directly alleles found to influence intelligence or racially identifying traits (such as skin color; see gene SLC24A5), making them susceptible to biotechnological intervention.^[93]

End material

Notes

^ The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America Book by Steven Fraser; Basic Books, 1995
^ Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos
^ The Bell Curve: An illustration of the existence of social science as a social problem Vivian Bishay. 2001.
^ Introduction: Keepers of the Flame Tucker.
^ The 1981 normalization of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
^ Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley
^ Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252
^ A History of Race/ism Produced By: Tim McCaskell Toronto District School Board
^ Jalata, Asafa 1954- "Race and Ethnicity in East Africa (review)" Africa Today - Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2001, pp. 134-136 Indiana University Press
^ The Invention of the White Race By Chantal Mouffe, Theodore (Theodore W.) Allen
^ Media, Stereotypes and the Perpetuation of Racism in Canada by James Crawford
Indians were seen as a homogeneous group of savages despite the fact that individual groups varied extensively and had several well developed social systems. Black people were also portrayed as savage, uncivilized and having low intelligence. By creating these social constructs, expansion into North America was justified.
^ Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. For samples of individual studies showing similar results, see the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, reported by Template:AYref; the Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study reported by Template:AYref; also Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref Template:AYref; Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. For scientific consensus statements see Template:AYref and Template:AYref.
^ The gap shows up before age 3 on most standardized tests after matching for variables such as maternal education. Other clustering: Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. The East-Asian/White/Black difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education (Template:AYref). Template:AYref found that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. Template:A(Y)ref found that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.
^ Template:AYref reports on the distribution of IQ within and between families, social classes, and races using a technique to partition variance called ANOVA. The average IQ difference between two siblings (within families) is about 12 points, compared to 17 points for two strangers and 20 points for one White and one Black American. Jensen attributes the large differences within families to the high heritability of IQ and the small influence of family environment.
^ Whether or not this carries over to adulthood remains to be investigated.
^ HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005) Richard E. Nisbett Psychology, Public Policy, and Law June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310
^ See: Snyderman and Rothman (study)
^ Some researchers^{[citation needed]} explicitly reject the latter terms as inaccurately global in connotation and insensitive, but the terms are used by some critics (Template:AYref,[1] p. 42).
^ Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America 2001
^ Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman. ISBN 0395822920
^ Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252
^ Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen (1972). Racism and Psychiatry. New York: Carol Publishing Group.
^ Samual A. Cartwright, "Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race", DeBow's Review—Southern and Western States, Volume XI, New Orleans, 1851
^ Eugenics: America's Darkest Days
^ Francis Galton:British Psychologist
^ Template:AYref; Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref
^ Porteus, Stanley. The Psychology of a Primitive People, 1931.
^ Racial Inequality: Fact or Myth W. O. Brown, The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 16, No. 1. (Jan., 1931), pp. 49
^ According to historian of psychology Graham Richards there was widespread critical debate within psychology about the conceptual underpinnings of this early race difference research (Template:AYref). These include Estabrooks (1928) two papers on the limitations of methodology used in the research; Dearborn and Long’s (1934) overview of the criticisms by several psychologists (Garth, Thompson, Peterson, Pinter, Herskovits, Daniel, Price, Wilkerson, Freeman, Rosenthal and C.E. Smith) in a collection they edited and Klineburg, who wrote three major critiques, one in 1928, and two in 1935. Richards also notes that with over a 1000 publications within psychology during the interwar years there had been a large internal debate. Towards the end of the time period almost all those publishing, including most of those who began with a pro-race differences stance, were firmly arguing against race differences research. Richards regards the scientific controversy to be dead at this point, although he also suggests reasons for its re-emergence in the late nineteen sixties.
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref; Template:AYref, pp. 45–54
^ Template:AYref pp. 67–69
^ Template:AYref
^ ^a ^b ^c Explaining Race Differences in IQ: The Logic, the Methodology, and the Evidence American Psychologist, November 1984, Brian Mackenzie. Mackenzie writes of Jensen's hereditarian position as a "genetic model", in contrast to a "jointly genetic/environmental" model. Jensen often uses the term "partly-genetic" to describe his position, even though his views aren't seen as congruent with the "jointly genetic/environmental" model described by Mackenzie.
^ George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11
^ George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11
^ {{This paragraph includes excerpts from William Shockley; however editors of this page have expressed concern over the lack of citations at that article. A request for citation has been placed there. Please refer to discussion page before further editing etc}}
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref (given in Template:AYref's summary, p.599)
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref (given in Template:AYref's summary, p. 599)
^ It is well established that within-population genetic diversity is greatest within Sub-Saharan Africa, and decreases with distance from Africa. One study estimates that only 6.3% of the total human genetic diversity is explained by race.[2] This value is comparable to other reports which find that on average approximately 85% of genetic variation occurs within populations. In a hypothetical situation with two populations and a single gene with two alleles, this is equivalent to allele frequencies of 30% + 70% in one population and 70% + 30% in the other. Thus, using this single gene to classify individuals into populations would result in a 30% misclassification rate.
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, [3]. Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than between them Template:AYref.

Some critics of race may not consider this a problem for race and intelligence inquiries. Jared Diamond, who praises Cavalli-Sforza's genetics research over the decades for "demolishing scientists' attempts to classify human populations into races in the same way that they classify birds and other species into races"(Template:AYref), also argues "in mental ability New Guineans are probably genetically superior to Westerners" due to that intelligence was likely selected for in hunter-gatherer New Guinea societies where the challenges were tribal warfare and food procurement, compared with high population density European civilizations where the major survival pressure was on genes for resisting epidemics (Diamond 1997/99, p.21).
^ http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref. Neil Risch argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! . . you can undermine any definitional system. . . In a recent study. . . we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance. . . So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism. And you can talk about age the same way. A person's chronological age does not correspond perfectly with his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? . . . Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility" (Template:AYref).
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref: "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref
^ According to a recent review by Template:AYref, seven large-scale studies of positive selection in the human genome have been published. The "advantageous traits" that were being selected for are mostly unknown, but some make inferences based on the known functions of those genes in the regions that show signs of selection.
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref. The neural dopamine gene studied in Harpending and Cochran, previously found to occur in substantially different worldwide frequencies, is also tied to behavior, with bearers displaying greater novelty-seeking behavior and being at increased risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Harpending and Cochran suggest this gene "may be a model system for understanding the relationship between genetic variation and human cultural diversity," noting high frequencies in South American Indians, such as the Yanomamo (sometimes referred to as "the Fierce People"), intermediate frequencies in Europeans and Africans, and very low frequencies in East Asians and !Kung Bushmen (sometimes referred to as "the Harmless People").
See the NYTimes' "Researchers Say Human Brain Is Still Evolving" (September 8, 2005), and "Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story" (March 7, 2006) for discussion of Mekel-Bobrov et al. and Evans et al., and Voight et al.
^ For statements directly reporting what views are in the majority see Template:AYref, Template:AYref, and Template:AYref. These findings are also discussed in the major handbooks, manuals, and encyclopedias on intelligence. For more detail, see the articles on IQ and intelligence.
^ Reviewed in Template:AYref. Data from the NLSY as reported in figure adapted from Template:AYref, p. 288.
^ Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn; Pamela K. Klebanov; Greg J. Duncan Child Development, Vol. 67, No. 2. (Apr., 1996), pp. 396-408.]
^ Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref
^ See for example APA's summary of their 1996 task force report (Template:AYref): "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" (Neisser et al. 1996); also: "It is clear, however, that these differences, whatever their origin, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors."(Neisser et al. 1996). The Template:AYref collective statement likewise states: "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref refers to such environmental factors as "Factor X", a name which he also applies to environmentalist hypotheses about group differences that posit the existence of a "Factor X". If group differences were caused by racism, then racism would be a "Factor X". Template:AYref and a number of subsequent studies sought and failed to find evidence for the existence of a Factor X. However, Template:AYref warns that these studies are not "well replicated".
^ Template:AYref.
^ (1995) [4]
^ Cite error: The named reference APA-report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ (American Psychologist, January 1997)
^ Murray lists race differences in brain size, along with "IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of transracial adoption studies, the correlation of the black-white difference with the g-loadedness of tests, regression to racial means across the range of IQ, or other relevant data" among the arguments omitted from the task force report.[5]
^ The authors of the report agreed that IQ scores have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirmed the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics (75% in adults). Consistent with Herrnstein and Murray's findings, they state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition.
^ "In a field where so many issues are unresolved and so many questions unanswered, the confident tone that has characterized most of the debate on these topics is clearly out of place. The study of intelligence does not need politicized assertions and recriminations; it needs self-restraint, reflection, and a great deal more research. The questions that remain are socially as well as scientifically important. There is no reason to think them unanswerable, but finding the answers will require a shared and sustained effort as well as the commitment of substantial scientific resources. Just such a commitment is what we strongly recommend."
^ Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref pp. 44-47.
^ Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: Street Mathematics and School Mathematics By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139
^ Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Richard K. Wagner
^ Standardization of the Panga Munthu Test-A Nonverbal Cognitive Test Developed in Zambia Ravinder Kathuria, Robert Serpell The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 67, No. 3, Assessment in the Context of Culture and Pedagogy (Summer, 1998), pp. 228-241
^ For example, see Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref
^ In more than a dozen studies from the 1960s and 1970s analyzed by Flynn (1991, 2002), the mean IQs of Japanese- and Chinese American children were always around 97 or 98; none was over 100. These studies did not include other Asian groups such as the Vietnamese, Cambodians, or Filipinos; who tend to under perform academically and on conventional psychometric tests (See Flynn, 1991).
^ Template:AYref had reported that Japanese IQ was significantly higher than average IQ in the United States, and that Japanese IQ scores had risen over the past generation. Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref find that the average IQ scores of East Asians in Asia, North America and Europe are significantly higher than 100.
^ Patricia J. Williams: "Racial Ventriloquism". The Nation. June 17, 1999. Retrieved June 11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
^ THE PORTRAYALS OF MINORITY CHARACTERS IN ENTERTAINING ANIMATED CHILDREN’S PROGRAMS
^ Media Portrayals of Major League Baseball Pitchers
^ Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. 2001
^ Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman ISBN 0395822920
^ Spike Lee discusses racial stereotypes
^ Early hereditarian James Redfield's 1852 book Comparative physiognomy; or, Resemblances between men and animals saw Irishmen as dog-like.
^ Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter Feminist Review, No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487
^ Alien Menace
^ e.g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387
^ e.g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387
^ Hunt & Carlson, in press
^ Frank, Reanne, The Misuse of Biology in Demographic Research on Racial/Ethnic Differences: A Reply to van den Oord and Rowe, Demography - Volume 38, Number 4, November 2001, pp. 563-567
^ Achieving Equitable Education in Calhoun County
^ Educational Studies: A Jrnl of the American Educ. Studies Assoc.
^ For example, the policy recommendations of The Bell Curve were denounced by many.^{[citation needed]} Template:AYref wrote: "We can imagine no recommendation for using the government to manipulate fertility that does not have dangers. But this highlights the problem: The United States already has policies that inadvertently social-engineer who has babies, and it is encouraging the wrong women. If the United States did as much to encourage high-IQ women to have babies as it now does to encourage low-IQ women, it would rightly be described as engaging in aggressive manipulation of fertility. The technically precise description of America's fertility policy is that it subsidizes births among poor women, who are also disproportionately at the low end of the intelligence distribution. We urge generally that these policies, represented by the extensive network of cash and services for low-income women who have babies, be ended. (p. 548)" Two year later the 1996 U.S. welfare reform substantially cut these programs. In a discussion of the future political outcomes of an intellectually stratified society, they stated that they: "fear that a new kind of conservatism is becoming the dominant ideology of the affluent - not in the social tradition of an Edmund Burke or in the economic tradition of an Adam Smith but ’conservatism’ along Latin American lines, where to be conservative has often meant doing whatever is necessary to preserve the mansions on the hills from the menace of the slums below. (p. 518)"Moreover, they fear that an increasing welfare will create a "custodial state": "a high-tech and more lavish version of the Indian reservation of some substantial minority of the nation’s population. They also predict increasing totalitarianism: It is difficult to imagine the United States preserving its heritage of individualism, equal rights before the law, free people running their own lives, once it is accepted that a significant part of the population must be made permanent wards of the states. (p. 526)"
^ Template:AYref
^ Template:AYref
^ Gregory Stock argues "current debates about whether some of the differences among ethnic and racial groups are cultural or biological will soon become irrelevant, given the coming [malleability of biological traits]" (Template:AYref, p. 194; race and intelligence discussed on pp. 44-47).

References

External links

Collective Statements

Review Papers

James Flynn and Charles Murray debate - news summary
June 2005 issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, Vol. 11, No. 2.
- Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability J. Philippe Rushton & Arthur R. Jensen
- There Are No Public-Policy Implications Robert J. Sternberg
- What if the Hereditarian Hypothesis is True? Linda S. Gottfredson
- Heredity, Environment, and Race Differences in IQ Richard E. Nisbett
- The Cultural Malleability of Intelligence and Its Impact on the Racial/Ethnic Hierarchy Lisa Suzuki & Joshua Aronson
- Wanted: More Race Realism, Less Moralistic Fallacy J. Philippe Rushton & Arthur R. Jensen
Race, Genetics and IQ Richard E. Nisbett (PDF)
The Inequality Taboo Charles Murray archived version
The Black-White Test Score Gap (1998) online (page-image) version of ISBN 0-8157-4609-1

Others

Crippled by Their Culture - Race doesn't hold back America's black rednecks. Nor does racism by Thomas Sowell
Race and IQ: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 by Thomas Sowell
The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on IQ and race
(Skeptic Magazine): Two book reviews, by Paul R. Gross and Alondra Oubre, of Sarich’s and Miele’s book, Race: The Reality of Human Differences
Criticism on source material of Bell Curve book
Poverty and Brain Development in Early Childhood 1999 report
Miscellaneous articles by Richard Lynn et al.
Are IQ Tests Biased?
Scholars Provide an Overview of Explanations for Black-White Test Score Gap
School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps
La Griffe du Lion - pseudonymously released statistical analyses on this and related subjects. (Review)
A review of the field (Jan. 2006) Kohn, Marek, "This racist undercurrent in the tide of genetic research: As taboos fall away, there's a danger that denial of racial difference will be replaced with uncritical acceptance," The Guardian.
The Lessons of the Ashkenazim: Groups and Genes, Steven Pinker, June 2006, The New Republic.
Are all races equally intelligent? -- Or: When is knowledge knowledge? by John J. Ray
Black-White Gap in IQ Scores Closing, Study Finds

Template:Race and intelligence

[1] The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America Book by Steven Fraser; Basic Books, 1995

[2] Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos

[3] The Bell Curve: An illustration of the existence of social science as a social problem Vivian Bishay. 2001.

[4] Introduction: Keepers of the Flame Tucker.

[5] The 1981 normalization of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

[6] Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley

[7] Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252

[8] A History of Race/ism Produced By: Tim McCaskell Toronto District School Board

[9] Jalata, Asafa 1954- "Race and Ethnicity in East Africa (review)" Africa Today - Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2001, pp. 134-136 Indiana University Press

[10] The Invention of the White Race By Chantal Mouffe, Theodore (Theodore W.) Allen

[11] Media, Stereotypes and the Perpetuation of Racism in Canada by James Crawford
Indians were seen as a homogeneous group of savages despite the fact that individual groups varied extensively and had several well developed social systems. Black people were also portrayed as savage, uncivilized and having low intelligence. By creating these social constructs, expansion into North America was justified.

[IQdistribution-12] Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. For samples of individual studies showing similar results, see the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, reported by Template:AYref; the Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study reported by Template:AYref; also Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref Template:AYref; Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. For scientific consensus statements see Template:AYref and Template:AYref.

[13] The gap shows up before age 3 on most standardized tests after matching for variables such as maternal education. Other clustering: Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref, Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref. The East-Asian/White/Black difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education (Template:AYref). Template:AYref found that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. Template:A(Y)ref found that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.

[14] Template:AYref reports on the distribution of IQ within and between families, social classes, and races using a technique to partition variance called ANOVA. The average IQ difference between two siblings (within families) is about 12 points, compared to 17 points for two strangers and 20 points for one White and one Black American. Jensen attributes the large differences within families to the high heritability of IQ and the small influence of family environment.

[15] Whether or not this carries over to adulthood remains to be investigated.

[16] HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005) Richard E. Nisbett Psychology, Public Policy, and Law June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310

[17] See: Snyderman and Rothman (study)

[18] Some researchers^{[citation needed]} explicitly reject the latter terms as inaccurately global in connotation and insensitive, but the terms are used by some critics (Template:AYref,[1] p. 42).

[19] Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America 2001

[20] Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman. ISBN 0395822920

[21] Social Darwinism, Scientific Racism, and the Metaphysics of Race Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252

[22] Alexander Thomas and Samuell Sillen (1972). Racism and Psychiatry. New York: Carol Publishing Group.

[23] Samual A. Cartwright, "Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race", DeBow's Review—Southern and Western States, Volume XI, New Orleans, 1851

[24] Eugenics: America's Darkest Days

[25] Francis Galton:British Psychologist

[26] Template:AYref; Template:AYref

[27] Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref

[28] Porteus, Stanley. The Psychology of a Primitive People, 1931.

[29] Racial Inequality: Fact or Myth W. O. Brown, The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 16, No. 1. (Jan., 1931), pp. 49

[30] According to historian of psychology Graham Richards there was widespread critical debate within psychology about the conceptual underpinnings of this early race difference research (Template:AYref). These include Estabrooks (1928) two papers on the limitations of methodology used in the research; Dearborn and Long’s (1934) overview of the criticisms by several psychologists (Garth, Thompson, Peterson, Pinter, Herskovits, Daniel, Price, Wilkerson, Freeman, Rosenthal and C.E. Smith) in a collection they edited and Klineburg, who wrote three major critiques, one in 1928, and two in 1935. Richards also notes that with over a 1000 publications within psychology during the interwar years there had been a large internal debate. Towards the end of the time period almost all those publishing, including most of those who began with a pro-race differences stance, were firmly arguing against race differences research. Richards regards the scientific controversy to be dead at this point, although he also suggests reasons for its re-emergence in the late nineteen sixties.

[31] Template:AYref

[32] Template:AYref; Template:AYref, pp. 45–54

[33] Template:AYref pp. 67–69

[34] Template:AYref

[mackenzie-35] Explaining Race Differences in IQ: The Logic, the Methodology, and the Evidence American Psychologist, November 1984, Brian Mackenzie. Mackenzie writes of Jensen's hereditarian position as a "genetic model", in contrast to a "jointly genetic/environmental" model. Jensen often uses the term "partly-genetic" to describe his position, even though his views aren't seen as congruent with the "jointly genetic/environmental" model described by Mackenzie.

[36] George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11

[37] George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography by Webster Griffin Tarpley and Anton Chaitkin, 1992 Executive Intelligence Review, Chapter 11

[38] {{This paragraph includes excerpts from William Shockley; however editors of this page have expressed concern over the lack of citations at that article. A request for citation has been placed there. Please refer to discussion page before further editing etc}}

[39] Template:AYref

[40] Template:AYref, Template:AYref (given in Template:AYref's summary, p.599)

[41] Template:AYref, Template:AYref (given in Template:AYref's summary, p. 599)

[42] It is well established that within-population genetic diversity is greatest within Sub-Saharan Africa, and decreases with distance from Africa. One study estimates that only 6.3% of the total human genetic diversity is explained by race.[2] This value is comparable to other reports which find that on average approximately 85% of genetic variation occurs within populations. In a hypothetical situation with two populations and a single gene with two alleles, this is equivalent to allele frequencies of 30% + 70% in one population and 70% + 30% in the other. Thus, using this single gene to classify individuals into populations would result in a 30% misclassification rate.

[43] Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, [3]. Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than between them Template:AYref.

Some critics of race may not consider this a problem for race and intelligence inquiries. Jared Diamond, who praises Cavalli-Sforza's genetics research over the decades for "demolishing scientists' attempts to classify human populations into races in the same way that they classify birds and other species into races"(Template:AYref), also argues "in mental ability New Guineans are probably genetically superior to Westerners" due to that intelligence was likely selected for in hunter-gatherer New Guinea societies where the challenges were tribal warfare and food procurement, compared with high population density European civilizations where the major survival pressure was on genes for resisting epidemics (Diamond 1997/99, p.21).

[lieberman-44] ttp://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf

[45] Template:AYref, Template:AYref. Neil Risch argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! . . you can undermine any definitional system. . . In a recent study. . . we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance. . . So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism. And you can talk about age the same way. A person's chronological age does not correspond perfectly with his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? . . . Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility" (Template:AYref).

[46] Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref: "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".

[Mountain_and_Risch-47] Template:AYref

[48] Template:AYref

[49] Template:AYref

[50] According to a recent review by Template:AYref, seven large-scale studies of positive selection in the human genome have been published. The "advantageous traits" that were being selected for are mostly unknown, but some make inferences based on the known functions of those genes in the regions that show signs of selection.

[brain_alleles-51] Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref. The neural dopamine gene studied in Harpending and Cochran, previously found to occur in substantially different worldwide frequencies, is also tied to behavior, with bearers displaying greater novelty-seeking behavior and being at increased risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Harpending and Cochran suggest this gene "may be a model system for understanding the relationship between genetic variation and human cultural diversity," noting high frequencies in South American Indians, such as the Yanomamo (sometimes referred to as "the Fierce People"), intermediate frequencies in Europeans and Africans, and very low frequencies in East Asians and !Kung Bushmen (sometimes referred to as "the Harmless People").
See the NYTimes' "Researchers Say Human Brain Is Still Evolving" (September 8, 2005), and "Still Evolving, Human Genes Tell New Story" (March 7, 2006) for discussion of Mekel-Bobrov et al. and Evans et al., and Voight et al.

[52] For statements directly reporting what views are in the majority see Template:AYref, Template:AYref, and Template:AYref. These findings are also discussed in the major handbooks, manuals, and encyclopedias on intelligence. For more detail, see the articles on IQ and intelligence.

[53] Reviewed in Template:AYref. Data from the NLSY as reported in figure adapted from Template:AYref, p. 288.

[54] Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn; Pamela K. Klebanov; Greg J. Duncan Child Development, Vol. 67, No. 2. (Apr., 1996), pp. 396-408.]

[55] Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref

[56] See for example APA's summary of their 1996 task force report (Template:AYref): "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" (Neisser et al. 1996); also: "It is clear, however, that these differences, whatever their origin, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors."(Neisser et al. 1996). The Template:AYref collective statement likewise states: "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."

[57] Template:AYref

[58] Template:AYref, Template:AYref

[59] Template:AYref

[60] Template:AYref refers to such environmental factors as "Factor X", a name which he also applies to environmentalist hypotheses about group differences that posit the existence of a "Factor X". If group differences were caused by racism, then racism would be a "Factor X". Template:AYref and a number of subsequent studies sought and failed to find evidence for the existence of a Factor X. However, Template:AYref warns that these studies are not "well replicated".

[61] Template:AYref.

[62] (1995) [4]

[APA-report-63] Cite error: The named reference APA-report was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[64] (American Psychologist, January 1997)

[65] Murray lists race differences in brain size, along with "IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of transracial adoption studies, the correlation of the black-white difference with the g-loadedness of tests, regression to racial means across the range of IQ, or other relevant data" among the arguments omitted from the task force report.[5]

[66] The authors of the report agreed that IQ scores have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirmed the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics (75% in adults). Consistent with Herrnstein and Murray's findings, they state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition.

[67] "In a field where so many issues are unresolved and so many questions unanswered, the confident tone that has characterized most of the debate on these topics is clearly out of place. The study of intelligence does not need politicized assertions and recriminations; it needs self-restraint, reflection, and a great deal more research. The questions that remain are socially as well as scientifically important. There is no reason to think them unanswerable, but finding the answers will require a shared and sustained effort as well as the commitment of substantial scientific resources. Just such a commitment is what we strongly recommend."

[68] Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref pp. 44-47.

[69] Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: Street Mathematics and School Mathematics By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139

[70] Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence By Robert J. Sternberg, Richard K. Wagner

[71] Standardization of the Panga Munthu Test-A Nonverbal Cognitive Test Developed in Zambia Ravinder Kathuria, Robert Serpell The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 67, No. 3, Assessment in the Context of Culture and Pedagogy (Summer, 1998), pp. 228-241

[72] For example, see Template:AYref; Template:AYref; Template:AYref

[73] In more than a dozen studies from the 1960s and 1970s analyzed by Flynn (1991, 2002), the mean IQs of Japanese- and Chinese American children were always around 97 or 98; none was over 100. These studies did not include other Asian groups such as the Vietnamese, Cambodians, or Filipinos; who tend to under perform academically and on conventional psychometric tests (See Flynn, 1991).

[74] Template:AYref had reported that Japanese IQ was significantly higher than average IQ in the United States, and that Japanese IQ scores had risen over the past generation. Template:AYref, Template:AYref, Template:AYref find that the average IQ scores of East Asians in Asia, North America and Europe are significantly higher than 100.

[Williams-75] Patricia J. Williams: "Racial Ventriloquism". The Nation. June 17, 1999. Retrieved June 11. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

[76] THE PORTRAYALS OF MINORITY CHARACTERS IN ENTERTAINING ANIMATED CHILDREN’S PROGRAMS

[77] Media Portrayals of Major League Baseball Pitchers

[78] Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. 2001

[79] Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race By John Milton Hoberman ISBN 0395822920

[80] Spike Lee discusses racial stereotypes

[81] Early hereditarian James Redfield's 1852 book Comparative physiognomy; or, Resemblances between men and animals saw Irishmen as dog-like.

[82] Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter Feminist Review, No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487

[83] Alien Menace

[84] .g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387

[85] .g., Sternberg, 2003, pp. 386-387

[86] Hunt & Carlson, in press

[87] Frank, Reanne, The Misuse of Biology in Demographic Research on Racial/Ethnic Differences: A Reply to van den Oord and Rowe, Demography - Volume 38, Number 4, November 2001, pp. 563-567

[88] Achieving Equitable Education in Calhoun County

[89] Educational Studies: A Jrnl of the American Educ. Studies Assoc.

[90] For example, the policy recommendations of The Bell Curve were denounced by many.^{[citation needed]} Template:AYref wrote: "We can imagine no recommendation for using the government to manipulate fertility that does not have dangers. But this highlights the problem: The United States already has policies that inadvertently social-engineer who has babies, and it is encouraging the wrong women. If the United States did as much to encourage high-IQ women to have babies as it now does to encourage low-IQ women, it would rightly be described as engaging in aggressive manipulation of fertility. The technically precise description of America's fertility policy is that it subsidizes births among poor women, who are also disproportionately at the low end of the intelligence distribution. We urge generally that these policies, represented by the extensive network of cash and services for low-income women who have babies, be ended. (p. 548)" Two year later the 1996 U.S. welfare reform substantially cut these programs. In a discussion of the future political outcomes of an intellectually stratified society, they stated that they: "fear that a new kind of conservatism is becoming the dominant ideology of the affluent - not in the social tradition of an Edmund Burke or in the economic tradition of an Adam Smith but ’conservatism’ along Latin American lines, where to be conservative has often meant doing whatever is necessary to preserve the mansions on the hills from the menace of the slums below. (p. 518)"Moreover, they fear that an increasing welfare will create a "custodial state": "a high-tech and more lavish version of the Indian reservation of some substantial minority of the nation’s population. They also predict increasing totalitarianism: It is difficult to imagine the United States preserving its heritage of individualism, equal rights before the law, free people running their own lives, once it is accepted that a significant part of the population must be made permanent wards of the states. (p. 526)"

[91] Template:AYref

[92] Template:AYref

[93] Gregory Stock argues "current debates about whether some of the differences among ethnic and racial groups are cultural or biological will soon become irrelevant, given the coming [malleability of biological traits]" (Template:AYref, p. 194; race and intelligence discussed on pp. 44-47).

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Recentism}}
 {{totally-disputed}}
+[[Image:Two Curve Bell.jpg|thumb|300px|A single bell curve like these two was featured on the cover of the controversial<ref>''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&docId=27181992 The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America]'' Book by Steven Fraser; Basic Books, 1995</ref><ref>''[http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s5877.html Inequality by Design]: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth'' Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martín Sánchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler, and Kim Vos</ref> book on race and intelligence [[The Bell Curve]].{{Off-topic-inline}} Some regard this book as solid science, while others consider it a modern example of [[scientific racism]].<ref>''[http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f01/web3/bishay.html  The Bell Curve: An illustration of the existence of social science as a social problem]'' Vivian Bishay.  2001.</ref><ref>[http://www.press.uillinois.edu/epub/books/tucker/intro.html Introduction: Keepers of the Flame] Tucker.</ref>{{Off-topic-inline}} These are ''idealized'' [[normal distribution|normal curves]] comparing the IQs of [[Black people|Blacks]] and [[White people|Whites]] in the US in 1981.<ref>The 1981 normalization of the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]]</ref>]]
-'''Race and intelligence''' are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. The possibility of a relationship between [[race]] and [[intelligence]] has been a topic of considerable speculation, study, and debate, especially since the 19th century.<ref>''[http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/amp60116.pdf Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race]'' Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley</ref>
+'''Race and intelligence''' are broad terms with many meanings that are often used to describe and measure human beings. The possibility of a relationship between [[race]] and [[intelligence]] has been a topic of considerable speculation, study, and debate, especially since the 19th century.<ref>''[http://www.apa.org/journals/releases/amp60116.pdf Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race]'' Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley</ref> The contemporary debate focuses on the nature, causes, and importance of racial and ethnic differences in [[intelligence quotient|intelligence test]] scores and other measures of cognitive ability. In the 19th and early 20th centuries research on race and intelligence was often used to argue that one race was superior to another, justifying poor outcomes and treatment for the "inferior race".<ref>''[[Social Darwinism]], [[Scientific racism|Scientific Racism]], and the Metaphysics of Race'' Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252</ref> Some early opinions about the differences among races grew out of [[stereotype]]s about non-whites developed during the period of [[colonialism]] and [[slavery]].<ref>[http://www.ameno.ca/docs/A%20History%20of%20Race.doc. A History of Race/ism] Produced By: Tim McCaskell Toronto District School Board</ref><ref>Jalata, Asafa 1954- "Race and Ethnicity in East Africa (review)" Africa Today - Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2001, pp. 134-136 Indiana University Press</ref><ref>The Invention of the White Race By Chantal Mouffe, Theodore (Theodore W.) Allen</ref><ref>[http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/crawford/jamesc.html Media, Stereotypes and the Perpetuation of Racism in Canada] by James Crawford<blockquote>Indians  were seen as a homogeneous group of savages despite the fact that individual groups varied extensively and had several well developed social systems. Black people were also portrayed as savage, uncivilized and having low intelligence. By creating these social constructs, expansion into North America was justified.</blockquote></ref>
-[[Richard E. Nisbett]] has said that the question of whether IQ differences between Blacks and Whites have a genetic basis goes back at least a thousand years, to the time when the [[Moors]] invaded Europe. The Moors speculated that Europeans might be congenitally incapable of abstract thought.<ref>Cicero warned the Romans not to purchase the British as slaves because they were so difficult to train (Sowell,  1994, p. 156); though Caesar did feel they "had a certain value for rough work," (Churchill, 1974,  p. 2.)</ref> By the 19th century most Europeans probably believed that they were congenitally superior to Africans in intellectual skills.<ref>[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nisbett/racegen.pdf. RACE, GENETICS, AND IQ] by [[Richard E. Nisbett]]</ref>  The contemporary debate focuses on the nature, causes, and importance of racial and ethnic differences in [[intelligence quotient|intelligence test]] scores and other measures of cognitive ability. In the 19th and early 20th centuries research on race and intelligence was often used to argue that one race was superior to another, justifying poor outcomes and treatment for the "inferior race".<ref>''[[Social Darwinism]], [[Scientific racism|Scientific Racism]], and the Metaphysics of Race'' Rutledge M. Dennis The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64, No. 3, Myths and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Abilities (Summer, 1995), pp. 243-252</ref> Some early opinions about the differences among races grew out of [[stereotype]]s about non-Whites developed during the period of [[colonialism]] and [[slavery]].<ref>[http://www.ameno.ca/docs/A%20History%20of%20Race.doc. A History of Race/ism] Produced By: Tim McCaskell Toronto District School Board</ref><ref>Jalata, Asafa 1954- "Race and Ethnicity in East Africa (review)" Africa Today - Volume 48, Number 4, Winter 2001, pp. 134-136 Indiana University Press</ref><ref>The Invention of the White Race By Chantal Mouffe, Theodore (Theodore W.) Allen</ref><ref>[http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/crawford/jamesc.html Media, Stereotypes and the Perpetuation of Racism in Canada] by James Crawford<blockquote>Indians  were seen as a homogeneous group of savages despite the fact that individual groups varied extensively and had several well developed social systems. Black people were also portrayed as savage, uncivilized and having low intelligence. By creating these social constructs, expansion into North America was justified.</blockquote></ref>
 Modern theories and research on race and intelligence are often grounded in two controversial assumptions:
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 *[[Intelligence]] is quantitatively measurable (see [[psychometrics]]) by modern tests and is dominated by a unitary [[general intelligence factor|general cognitive ability]].
-Much of the evidence currently cited is based on IQ testing in the United States. There is much less data from other nations, in particular the developing world, and conclusions from the US data cannot automatically be generalized to the world as a whole. While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups in the US overlap and often have a comparable [[Range (statistics)|range]], groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale.<ref name="IQdistribution"> {{AYref|Reynolds et al.|1987}}; {{AYref|Roth et al.|2001}}; {{AYref|Rushton|2000}}; {{AYref|Shuey|1958}}; {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}.  For samples of individual studies showing similar results, see the [http://www.archives.gov/research/electronic-records/nih.html National Collaborative Perinatal Project], reported by {{AYref|Broman et al.|1987}}; the [[Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study]] reported by {{AYref|Weinberg et al.|1992}}; also {{AYref|Lynn|1977a}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1977b}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1982}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1987}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1991}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Hampson|1986a}} {{AYref|Lynn and Hampson|1986b}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1987a}}, {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1987b}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1988}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Holmshaw|1990}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Shigehasa|1991}}; {{AYref|Montie and Fagan|1988}}; {{AYref|Rushton|1997}}; {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2003}}; {{AYref|Rushton et al.|2003}}; {{AYref|Notcutt|1950}}; {{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Reynolds|1982}}; {{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}.  For scientific consensus statements see {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} and {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}.</ref> Similar clustering has been reported with related variables, such as [[Achievement gap|school achievement]], [[reaction time]], and [[neuroscience and intelligence|brain size]].<ref>The gap shows up before age 3 on most standardized tests after matching for variables such as maternal education. Other clustering: {{AYref|Thernstrom and Thernstrom|2003}}; {{AYref|Roth et al.|2001}}; {{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Whang|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Holmshaw|1990}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Shigehasa|1991}}; {{AYref|Ho et al.|1980a}}, {{AYref|Ho et al.|1980b}}; {{AYref|Harvey_et_al.|1994}}; {{AYref|Rushton|1991}}. The East-Asian/White/Black difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education ({{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}). {{AYref|Lynn|1996}} found that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. {{A(Y)ref|Broman et al.|1987}} found that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.</ref> Most [[Variance|variation]] in IQ in the U.S. occurs within individual families, not between races.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}} reports on the distribution of IQ within and between families, social classes, and races using a technique to partition variance called [[ANOVA]]. The average IQ difference between two siblings (within families) is about 12 points, compared to 17 points for two strangers and 20 points for one White and one Black American. Jensen attributes the large differences within families to the high heritability of IQ and the small influence of family environment.</ref> However, even small differences in average IQ at the group level might theoretically have large effects on social outcomes.{{who}} <!--Please use a source and name the source in the text for this last sentence-->
+Much of the evidence currently cited is based on IQ testing in the United States. There is much less data from other nations, in particular the developing world, and conclusions from the US data cannot automatically be generalized to the world as a whole. While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups in the US overlap and often have a comparable [[Range (statistics)|range]], groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale.<ref name="IQdistribution"> {{AYref|Reynolds et al.|1987}}; {{AYref|Roth et al.|2001}}; {{AYref|Rushton|2000}}; {{AYref|Shuey|1958}}; {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}.  For samples of individual studies showing similar results, see the [http://www.archives.gov/research/electronic-records/nih.html National Collaborative Perinatal Project], reported by {{AYref|Broman et al.|1987}}; the [[Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study]] reported by {{AYref|Weinberg et al.|1992}}; also {{AYref|Lynn|1977a}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1977b}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1982}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1987}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1991}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Hampson|1986a}} {{AYref|Lynn and Hampson|1986b}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1987a}}, {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1987b}}; {{AYref|Lynn et al.|1988}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Holmshaw|1990}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Shigehasa|1991}}; {{AYref|Montie and Fagan|1988}}; {{AYref|Rushton|1997}}; {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2003}}; {{AYref|Rushton et al.|2003}}; {{AYref|Notcutt|1950}}; {{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Reynolds|1982}}; {{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}.  For scientific consensus statements see {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} and {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}.</ref> Similar clustering has been reported with related variables, such as [[Achievement gap|school achievement]], [[reaction time]], and [[neuroscience and intelligence|brain size]].<ref>The gap shows up before age 3 on most standardized tests after matching for variables such as maternal education. Other clustering: {{AYref|Thernstrom and Thernstrom|2003}}; {{AYref|Roth et al.|2001}}; {{AYref|Jensen|1993}}; {{AYref|Jensen and Whang|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Holmshaw|1990}}; {{AYref|Lynn and Shigehasa|1991}}; {{AYref|Ho et al.|1980a}}, {{AYref|Ho et al.|1980b}}; {{AYref|Harvey_et_al.|1994}}; {{AYref|Rushton|1991}}. The East-Asian/White/Black difference in average IQ can be measured in very young children. For example, a one standard deviation gap is observed in Black and White 3-year olds matched for gender, birth order, and maternal education ({{AYref|Peoples et al.|1995}}). {{AYref|Lynn|1996}} found that by age 6 the average IQ of East Asian children is 107, 103 for White children and 89 for Black children. {{A(Y)ref|Broman et al.|1987}} found that the same trichotomy in brain size and IQ held at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age.</ref> Most [[Variance|variation]] in IQ in the U.S. occurs within individual families, not between races.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}} reports on the distribution of IQ within and between families, social classes, and races using a technique to partition variance called [[ANOVA]]. The average IQ difference between two siblings (within families) is about 12 points, compared to 17 points for two strangers and 20 points for one White and one Black American. Jensen attributes the large differences within families to the high heritability of IQ and the small influence of family environment.</ref> However, even small differences in average IQ at the group level might theoretically have large effects on social outcomes.
 Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain why average IQ varies among racial-ethnic groups. Certain environmental factors, such as [[nutrition]], are thought to moderate IQ in children,<ref>Whether or not this carries over to adulthood remains to be investigated.</ref> and other influences have been hypothesized, including education level, richness of the early home environment, and other social, cultural, or economic factors. The primary focus of the scientific debate is whether group IQ differences also reflect a genetic component. [[Hereditarianism]] hypothesizes that a [[inheritance of intelligence|genetic contribution to intelligence]] could include genes linked to neuron structure or function, [[neuroscience and intelligence|brain size]] or metabolism, or other physiological differences which could vary with biogeographic ancestry.
-The findings of this field have engendered significant controversy. Press coverage has given considerable positive attention to theories of genetic racial differences in intelligence even though there is no consensus among researchers regarding their validity.<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett Psychology, Public Policy, and Law June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310</ref>  Upon publication, ''[[The Bell Curve]]'', a controversial book that asserted that the gap in Black and White IQ scores was, in part, genetic, received a great deal of positive publicity, including cover stories in ''Newsweek''  ''The New Republic'', and ''The New York Times Book Review''. Still, few strong propionates of the genetic theories of differences in intelligence do not think that press coverage has been positive enough. For example, media opinion of the role of genetic and environmental factors in explaining individual and group differences in IQ was studied in 1988 by conservative researchers Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman. They found it to differ from the opinion of mainstream experts.<ref>See: [[Snyderman and Rothman (study)]]</ref>
+The findings of this field have engendered significant controversy. Press coverage has given considerable positive attention to theories of genetic racial differences in intelligence even though there is no consensus among researchers regarding their validity.<ref>[http://taxa.epi.umn.edu/~mbmiller/journals/pppl/200504/2/302-2.html HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND RACE DIFFERENCES IN IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen (2005)] Richard E. Nisbett Psychology, Public Policy, and Law June 2005 Vol. 11, No. 2, 302-310</ref>  Upon publication, ''[[The Bell Curve]]'', a controversial book that asserted that the gap in black and white IQ scores was, in part, genetic, received a great deal of positive publicity, including cover stories in ''Newsweek''  ''The New Republic'', and ''The New York Times Book Review''. Still, few strong propionates of the genetic theories of differences in intelligence do not think that press coverage has been positive enough. For example, media opinion of the role of genetic and environmental factors in explaining individual and group differences in IQ was studied in 1988 by conservative researchers Mark Snyderman and Stanley Rothman. They found it to differ from the opinion of mainstream experts.<ref>See: [[Snyderman and Rothman (study)]]</ref>
 Some critics question the fairness and validity of cognitive testing and racial categorization, as well as the reliability of the studies and the motives of the authors, on both sides. This has included accusations of bias based on the political ideals of the researchers or the funding agencies, such as the [[Pioneer Fund]]. Some critics fear the misuse of the research, question its [[utility]], or feel that comparing the intelligence of racial groups is itself [[ethics|unethical]]. The disparity in average IQ among racial groups does not mean that all members of one group are more intelligent than all members of another.  Robert A. Gordon, a Pioneer Fund media critic, ranking group averages "high" to "low" is not the same things as moral ranking from "good" to "bad" or an overall ranking of "superior" to "inferior".<ref>Some researchers{{Fact|date=February 2007}} explicitly reject the latter terms as inaccurately global in connotation and insensitive, but the terms are used by some critics ({{AYref|Gordon|1997b}},[http://www.pioneerfund.org/Gordon.pdf] p. 42).</ref> The conclusions of a few researchers: that racial groups in the US vary in average IQ scores, and the hypothesis that a genetic component may be involved, have led to heated academic debates that have spilled over into the public sphere.
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 The writings of Sir [[Francis Galton]], a  British psychologist, spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to [[heredity]] and [[eugenics]].<ref>[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring02/Holland/Galton.htm Eugenics: America's Darkest Days]</ref> Galton estimated from his field observations in Africa that the African people were 'two grades' below Anglo-Saxons' position in the normal frequency distribution of general mental ability his work was seen as scientific validation of Africans' mental inferiority compared with Anglo-Saxons.<ref>[http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/galton.shtml  Francis Galton:British Psychologist]</ref>
-====Immigration and segregation====
+====Jim Crow and segregation====
 The scientific debate on the contribution of [[nature versus nurture]] to individual and group differences in intelligence can be traced to at least the mid-19th century.<ref>{{AYref|Degler|1992}}; {{AYref|Loehlin et al.|1975}}</ref> [[Charles Darwin]] wrote in his ''[[Descent of Man]]'' (VII, ''On the races of Man''):
 "Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual faculties."
@@ Line 95: / Line 95: @@
 == Research ==
 {{main|Race and intelligence (Research)}}
-[[Image:Two Curve Bell.jpg|thumb|250px|The causes of achievement gap between races has been the focus og contemporary research. These are ''idealized'' [[normal distribution|normal curves]] comparing the IQs of [[Black people|Blacks]] and [[White people|Whites]] in the US in 1981.<ref>The 1981 normalization of the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]]</ref>]]
-'''Race and intelligence research''' tries to measure the gaps between different races or ethnicities and to find the causes for these gaps. The gaps found between the average measures of races or ethnicities varies depending on methods used for racial grouping, the method and setting used to test intelligence<ref>Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: ''Street Mathematics and School Mathematics'' By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139</ref>, the health and economic situation of the test takers, the interplay between the culture of the person taking the test and the culture of those who made the test, and the period in history when the test was performed.
-The gaps found between the average measures of races or ethnicities varies depending on methods used for racial grouping, the method and setting used to test intelligence<ref>Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: ''Street Mathematics and School Mathematics'' By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139</ref>, the health and economic situation of the test takers, the interplay between the culture of the person taking the test and the culture of those who made the test, and the period in history when the test was performed.
-Depending on the way intelligence is measured a variety of gaps may be found between different racial and ethnic groups. Some groups that perform well on one task may do poorly on others. For example, [[Moroccan]] and North American individuals were asked in a study by Richard K. Wagner to remember patterns of Oriental rugs and pictures of everyday objects, such as a rooster and a fish. Moroccans who have long experience in the rug trade seemed to remember rug patterns better than the North American individuals.<ref>''Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence'' By [[Robert J. Sternberg]], [[Richard K. Wagner]]</ref> Linkewise, in 1979 Robert Serpell had Zambian and English children perform a number of tasks. He found that English children did better on a drawing task, but that Zambian children did better on a wire-shaping task.<ref>''Standardization of the Panga Munthu Test-A Nonverbal Cognitive Test Developed in Zambia Ravinder Kathuria'', [[Robert Serpell]] The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 67, No. 3, Assessment in the Context of Culture and Pedagogy (Summer, 1998), pp. 228-241</ref>
-The modern controversy surrounding intelligence and race focuses on the results of IQ studies conducted during the second half of the 20th century, mainly in the United States and some other industrialized nations. On average, a difference of approximately one [[standard deviation]] was observed in the US between the mean IQ score of Blacks and Whites as adults. Most recent attempted compilations of average IQ by race place [[Ashkenazi Jews]] at the top, followed by [[East Asia]]ns, [[White (people)|Whites]], [[Hispanic]]s and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], and [[African Americans]].<ref>For example, see {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}; {{AYref|Lynn|2006}}</ref> Whether these gaps have narrowed or not, especially regarding children which may or may not later also cause a narrowing for adults, is, as noted below, debated.
-Over the years, there has been variation in both the observed average IQ of groups, as well as the relative relationships between the average IQ of groups. Early 20th century measures typically found Blacks on the low end, and Whites on the high end. Based on studies from the 1960s and 1970s, Flynn found a slightly lower average IQ of Japanese- and Chinese American children compared to White counterparts.<ref>In more than a dozen studies from the 1960s and 1970s analyzed by Flynn (1991, 2002), the mean IQs of Japanese- and Chinese American children were always around 97 or 98; none was over 100. These studies did not include other Asian groups such as the Vietnamese, Cambodians, or Filipinos; who tend to under perform academically and on conventional psychometric tests (See Flynn, 1991).</ref> Recent contemporary measures place Blacks on the low end, and Asians on the high end. <ref>{{AYref|Lynn|1982}} had reported that Japanese IQ was significantly higher than average IQ in the United States, and that Japanese IQ scores had risen over the past generation. {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005}}, {{AYref|Lynn|2006}} find that the average IQ scores of East Asians in Asia, North America and Europe are significantly higher than 100.</ref>
 === Explanations ===
 {{main|Race and intelligence (Explanations)}}
+==== Introduction ====
-Although, most intelligence researchers believe that IQ differences among '''individuals''' reflect the [[general intelligence factor]], ''g''.<ref>{{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}; {{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}; {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}; {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}}</ref> the question of whether IQ differences among '''groups''' are substantially genetic remains unsettled. Researchers, such as [[Richard E. Nisbett]] caution that the studies that are most directly relevant to the question of whether the Black/White IQ gap is genetic in origin provide no evidence for a correlation between IQ and African (rather than European)  ancestry.  The best modern studies, says Nisbett indicate little relation between skin color and IQ.  One modern  study of blood types weakly suggests African superiority; the other two suggest no difference  between the races.<ref>[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~nisbett/racegen.pdf. ''RACE, GENETICS, AND IQ''], [[Richard E. Nisbett]]</ref>
+[[Image:TBC-BW-IQ-SES-withDiff.png|right|thumb|250px|According to a 1975 study cited by a 1995 report released by the American Psychological Association, the black-white score gap ''is not eliminated when groups or individuals are matched for SES''. The report concludes that no ''simple income- and education-based index can adequately describe the situation of African Americans''<ref>Reviewed in {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}. Data from the [[National Longitudinal Surveys|NLSY]] as reported in figure adapted from {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, p. 288.</ref>. A recent 1996 study using multiple socio-economic factors have accounted for 80% of the gap, and suggest that any remaining gap is statistically insignificant.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-3920%28199604%2967%3A2%3C396%3AEDICIT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics], Jeanne Brooks-Gunn; Pamela K. Klebanov; Greg J. Duncan Child Development, Vol. 67, No. 2. (Apr., 1996), pp. 396-408.]</ref>]]
+Most intelligence researchers believe that IQ differences among '''individuals''' reflect the [[general intelligence factor]], ''g''.<ref>{{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}; {{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}; {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}; {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}}</ref> The nature of ''g'' itself is still an active area of research, and the question of whether IQ differences among '''groups''' are substantially genetic is hotly contested.
-According to the [[American Psychological Association]], the difference between the average IQ scores of Blacks and Whites in the U.S. cannot be attributed to any obvious biases in test construction or cultural biases, though, it is clear, they say, that these differences, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors.<ref>See for example APA's summary of their 1996 task force report ({{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}): "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" (Neisser et al. 1996); also: "It is clear, however, that these differences, whatever their origin, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors."(Neisser et al. 1996). The {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} collective statement likewise states: "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."</ref>
+According to the American Psychological Association, the difference between the average IQ scores of Blacks and Whites in the U.S. cannot be attributed to any obvious biases in test construction or cultural biases, as opposed to more occult environmental or genetic causes.<ref>See for example APA's summary of their 1996 task force report ({{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}): "The differential between the mean intelligence test scores of Blacks and Whites does not result from any obvious biases in test construction and administration, nor does it simply reflect differences in socio-economic status" (Neisser et al. 1996); also: "It is clear, however, that these differences, whatever their origin, are well within the range of effect sizes that can be produced by environmental factors."(Neisser et al. 1996). The {{AYref|Gottfredson|1997a}} collective statement likewise states: "Intelligence tests are not culturally biased against American Blacks or other native-born, English-speaking people in the U.S. Rather, IQ scores predict equally accurately for all such Americans, regardless of race or social class."</ref> Evidence against test construction and cultural bias includes the internal consistency of item difficulty for all groups, the equivalent validity of tests in predicting academic and occupational outcomes for all groups, and the persistence of the IQ gap on relatively culture-free tests.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1980}}</ref>
 Although IQ differences between individuals is highly heritable, this does not mean that average IQ differences between racial groups are necessarily genetic in origin, because estimates of heritability depend on the range of environments tested<ref>{{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, {{AYref|Murray|2005}}</ref>. High heritability by itself is not informative about group differences, so any inferences made from within group heritability will depend on additional considerations.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}}</ref> However, many scholars agree that no considerations of heritabilty are sufficient if group differences are caused by environmental factors that uniquely and uniformly affect all members of one group but not another<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998}} refers to such environmental factors as "Factor X", a name which he also applies to environmentalist hypotheses about group differences that posit the existence of a "Factor X". If group differences were caused by racism, then racism would be a "Factor X". {{AYref|Rowe et al.|1994}} and a number of subsequent studies sought and failed to find evidence for the existence of a Factor X. However, {{AYref|Gottfredson|2005}} warns that these studies are not "well replicated".</ref>.
-==== Environmental explanations ====
-[[Image:John Ogbu.jpg|thumb|140px|right|[[John Ogbu|John Uzo Ogbu]]<br> Anthropologist known for his theories on "caste-like minorities."]]
-Regarding the IQ gaps in the U.S., there are numerous possible explanations beside genetics. One author lists more than a hundred.<ref>http://personnelselection.com/adverse.impact.htm </ref> It has been suggested that [[African-American]] culture disfavors academic achievement and fosters an environment that is damaging to IQ.<ref>{{AYref|Boykin|1994}}</ref> Likewise, it is argued that the persistence of negative racial stereotypes reinforces this effect. Dr. [[John Ogbu]] writes that the condition of being a "caste-like minority" affects motivation and achievement, depressing IQ.<ref>Ogbu JU, Davis A (2003). Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers. ISBN 0-8058-4515-1</ref><ref name="Ogbu1978">Ogbu</ref>
-=====Culture=====
-Many anthropologists{{who}} have argued that intelligence is a cultural category; some cultures emphasize speed and competition more than others, for example. Speculations about innate differences in intelligence between ethnic groups have occurred throughout history.  [[Aristotle]] in the 4th century B.C. and [[Cicero]] in the 1st. century B.C. disparaged the intelligence of the northern Europeans of the time, as did the [[Moors]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] in the 11th century.
-<ref>Aristotle: "Having spoken of the number of the citizens, we will proceed to speak of what should be their character. This is a subject which can be easily understood by any one who casts his eye on the more celebrated states of [[Greece|Hellas]], and generally on the distribution of races in the habitable world. Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery. But the Hellenic race, which is situated between them, is likewise intermediate in character, being high-spirited and also intelligent. Hence it continues free, and is the best-governed of any nation, and, if it could be formed into one state, would be able to rule the world." (Aristotle, ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', [http://www.constitution.org/ari/polit_07.htm ch. 7]).
-<br>
-[[Cicero]]: "Do not obtain your slaves from Britain because they are so stupid and so utterly incapable of being taught that they are not fit to form a part of the household of Athens." Attributed to Cicero's ''Epistulae ad Atticum'' (Letters to Atticus), 68 BC-43 BC ([http://ebooks.cib.unibo.it/archive/00000151/ latin text]). Translation: {{AYref|Cicero|1918}}.
-<br>
-"Races north of the [[Pyrenees]] are of cold temperament and never reach maturity; they are of great stature and of a white colour.  But they lack all sharpness of wit and penetration of intellect."  Attributed to "Said of Toledo (a [[Moors|Moorish]] savant)" by {{AYref|Benedict|1999}} (p.34), originally quoted in {{AYref|Hogben|1931}}.</ref>
-=====Health=====
-{{Main|Health and intelligence}}
-In the developing world there are are many factors can greatly decrease IQ scores. Examples include nutrition deficiencies in [[iodine]] and [[iron]]; certain diseases like [[malaria]]; unregulated toxic industrial substances like [[lead]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]; and poor health care for pregnant women and infants. Also in the developed world there are many biological factors that can affect IQ. Increased rates of low birth weight babies and lower rates of breastfeeding in Blacks as compared to Whites are some factors of many that have been proposed to affect the IQ gap.<ref name="seeHandI">Health</ref>
-=====The Flynn effect=====
-[[Image:James Flynn.jpg|right|thumb|140px|[[James R. Flynn]] discovered the [[Flynn effect]], that average IQ scores are increasing worldwide.]]
-{{Main|Flynn effect}}
-The secular, international increase in test scores, commonly called the [[Flynn effect]], is seen by Flynn and others as reason to expect the eventual convergence of average black and white IQ scores. Flynn argues that the average IQ scores in several countries have increased about 3 points per decade during the 20th century, which he and others attribute predominantly to environmental causes.<ref>{{AYref|Flynn|1987}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1987b}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999}}, {{AYref|Flynn|1999b}}</ref> This means, given the same test, the mean black American performance today could be higher than the mean white American performance in 1920, though the gains causing this appear to have occurred predominantly in the lower half of the IQ distribution.<ref>{{AYref|Colom et al.|2005}}</ref> If changes in environment can cause changes in IQ over time, they argue, then contemporary differences between groups could also be due to an unknown environmental factor. On the supposition that the effect started earlier for whites, because their social and economical conditions began to improve earlier than did those of blacks, they anticipate that the IQ gap among races might change in the future or is even now changing.
-===== Stereotype threat =====
-{{main|Stereotype threat}}
-[[Image:Claude Steele.jpg|right|140px|thumb|'''Claude Mason Steele''' is a social psychologist at [[Stanford University]] known for his work on [[stereotype threat]]]]
-Stereotype threat is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing [[stereotype]] of a group with which one identifies. This fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance (Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2005). Stereotype threat was first articulated and documented by the social psychologists Claude Steele, Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer, who have conducted several studies on this topic.
-<blockquote>"When capable black college students fail to perform as well as their white counterparts, the explanation often has less to do with preparation or ability than with the threat of stereotypes about their capacity to succeed."<br>- [[Claude M. Steele]], [[The Atlantic Monthly]], August 1999 ''[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/199908/student-stereotype <br>Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and Black College Students]''</blockquote>
-It is suggested that reduced performance from "stereotype threat" could be a contributing factor to the gaps in IQ test scores. {{AYref|Steele and Aronson|1995}} found that making race salient when taking a test of cognitive ability negatively affected high-ability African American students. {{AYref|Sackett et al.|2004}} point out that these findings are widely misinterpreted to mean that eliminating stereotype threat eliminated the Black-White performance gap. <ref>See also {{AYref|Cohen and Sherman|2005}}, {{AYref|Helms|2005}}, {{AYref|Wicherts|2005}} and {{AYref|Sackett et al.|2005}} for discussion of the implications of [[stereotype threat]] for race and intelligence research.</ref>
-=====Other Factors=====
-Many studies that attempt to test for heritability find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis<ref name=mackenzie/>. They include studies on IQ and skin color,<ref>{{AYref|Shuey|1966}} reported the average correlation between skin color and IQ among American blacks is .1; for comparison {{AYref|Parra|2004}} found the correlation between skin color and fraction of West-African ancestry is .4.</ref> self-reported European ancestry,<ref>{{AYref|Jenkins|1936}}</ref> children in post WWII Germany born to black and white American soldiers,<ref>{{AYref|Eyferth|1961}}; see note below</ref> blood groups,<ref>{{AYref|Scarr et al.|1977}}, {{AYref|Loehlin et al.|1973}}</ref> and mixed-race children born to either a black or a white mother.<ref>{{AYref|Willerman et al.|1974}}</ref> Many intervention and adoption studies also find results that do not support the genetic hypothesis.<ref>{{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}</ref> Non-hereditarians have argued that these are direct tests of the genetic hypothesis and of more value than indirect variables, such as skull size and reaction time.<ref>{{AYref|Nisbett|2005}}</ref> Hereditarians argue that these studies are flawed due to their age, lack of replication, problems with their sample population, or that they do in fact support the genetic hypothesis.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005b}} argue that these studies are "peculiarly old, the mean year of publication being 1960" and "actually very weak and nondecisive, not having been replicated even once". {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, for example, points out that while the study of children born in post-WWII Germany finds no difference between white and interracial children, it does find a large difference in IQ between boys and girls, suggesting that sampling artifacts have affected the results.</ref>
-{{AYref|Fryer and Levitt|2006}}, with data from "the first large, nationally representative sample" of its kind, report finding only a very small racial difference when measuring mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, and that even these differences disappear when including a "limited set of controls".<ref name="Fryer and Levitt">{{AYref|Fryer and Levitt|2006}} [http://post.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/fryer/papers/fryer_levitt_ecls_babies.pdf Testing for Racial Differences in the Mental Ability of Young Children] "On tests of intelligence, Blacks systematically score worse than Whites, whereas Asians frequently outperform Whites. Some have argued that genetic differences across races account for the gap. Using a newly available nationally representative data set that includes a test of mental function for children aged eight to twelve months, we find only minor racial differences in test outcomes (0.06 standard deviation units in the raw data) between Blacks and Whites that disappear with the inclusion of a limited set of controls. The only statistically significant racial difference is that Asian children score slightly
-worse than those of other races. To the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."</ref>  They argue that their report poses "a substantial challenge to the simplest, most direct, and most often articulated genetic stories regarding racial differences in mental function."<ref name="Fryer and Levitt"/> They conclude that "to the extent that there are any genetically-driven racial differences in intelligence, these gaps must either emerge after the age of one, or operate along dimensions not captured by this early test of mental cognition."<ref name="Fryer and Levitt"/>
-==== Genetic explanation ====
-[[Image:Jensen2.jpg|right|thumb|140px|[[Arthur Jensen]] educational psychologist. He is a proponent of the [[hereditarian]] position on race and intelligence.]]
-Most of the proponents of the genetic hypothesis implicitly or explicitly assume that U.S. Blacks are both genetically inferior and environmentally inferior to U.S. Whites, and consider any explanations to account for IQ gaps to be in direct competition with each other.  Ned Block wrote in the ''The Boston Review'' regarding the authors of [[The Bell Curve]]:
-<blockquote>''In this passage, Herrnstein and Murray are "resolutely agnostic" about whether bad environment or genetic endowment is '''more''' responsible for the lower IQs of Blacks. But they indicate no agnosticism at all about whether '''part of the IQ difference''' between Blacks and Whites is genetic; and given their way of thinking about the matter, this means that they are not at all agnostic about '''some''' Black genetic inferiority.''<ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/Heritability.html How Heritability Misleads about Race], Ned Block, The Boston Review, XX, no 6, January, 1996, p. 30-35</ref></blockquote>
-Arthur Jensen and others{{who}} have concluded that the US IQ gap is partially genetic. Rushton and Jensen say that while plausible environmental explanation for the lower mean IQ in Blacks in the U.S. can be offered in many cases, these explanations are less capable of explaining the higher average IQ of East Asians than Whites.
-To support their theory, they often cite several arguments and observations:
-# Black–White–East Asian differences in IQ, reaction time, and brain size are observed worldwide in a range of cultures and environments. In the United States, significant Black-White IQ differences are observable at every age above 3 years, within every occupation or socioeconomic level tested, in every region of the country, and at every time since the invention of ability tests.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}</ref>
-# Jensen and others{{who}} have argued that the magnitude of race differences on different IQ subtests correlate with the extent to which those subtests measures ''g'',<ref>For example, see {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2003}}; see also [[Spearman's hypothesis]]</ref> which also correlates with measures of the subtests heritability.<ref>for example, [[inbreeding depression]] scores measured in Japan predict the magnitude of the Black-White gap in the United States. ({{AYref|Rushton|1989a}})</ref> From these and other findings, they argue that race differences have a partly biological basis.<ref>reviewed by {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}</ref>
-# The rising [[IQ#Development|heritability of IQ]] with age (within all races; studies have found on average in the developed world heritability starts at 20% in infants, rises to 40% in middle childhood, and peaks at 80% in adulthood); and studies showing the virtual disappearance (~0.0) by adulthood of shared environmental effects on IQ (for example, family income, education, and home environment), with adopted siblings partaking in the studies no more similar in IQ than with strangers<ref>{{AYref|Plomin et al.|2001}}</ref> From these studies, they argue that most suggested environmental explanations for IQ difference between groups do not have a strong enough effect on IQ to fully account for group differences.
-# Studies of US comparisons of both parents to children and siblings to each other finding [[Regression toward the mean|regression]] to differing means for different races (85 for Blacks and 100 for Whites) across the entire range of IQs,<ref>for example, the children of wealthy, high IQ Black parents score lower than the children of poor, low IQ White parents ({{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, p. 358); and for Black and White children with an IQ of 120, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 100 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 110; in comparison, for Black and White children with an IQ of 70, the siblings of the Black children average an IQ of 78 whereas the siblings of the White children average an IQ of 85 ({{AYref|Jensen|1973}}, pp. 107–119))</ref> despite the fact that siblings are matched for shared environment and genetic heritage, with regression unaffected by family socioeconomic status and generation examined<ref>http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/cmurraybga0799.pdf</ref>
-#Evidence against test construction and cultural bias: the internal consistency of item difficulty for all groups, the equivalent validity of tests in predicting academic and occupational outcomes for all groups, and the persistence of the IQ gap on relatively culture-free tests.<ref>{{AYref|Jensen|1980}}</ref>
-{{A(Y)ref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}} believe that the best explanation is that 50%-80% of the group differences in average US IQ is genetic.<ref>{{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005a}}, cited in "[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-04/cdri-bai042505.php Black-White-East Asian IQ differences at least 50% genetic, scientists conclude in major law journal]", and {{AYref|Murray|2005}}</ref>
 ===Surveys of academic opinion===
-A survey was conducted in 1987 of a broad sample of 1,020 scholars in specialties that would give them reason to be knowledgeable about IQ (but not necessarily about race).  The survey was given to members of the American Education Research Association, National Council on Measurement in Education, [[American Psychological Association]], [[American Sociological Association]], [[Behavior Genetics Association]], and Cognitive Science Society.  According to the report, regarding the question "The source of Black-White difference in IQ":
+A survey was conducted in 1987 of a broad sample of 1,020 scholars in specialties that would give them reason to be knowledgeable about IQ (but not necessarily about race).  The survey was given to members of the [[American Education Research Association]], [[National Council on Measurement in Education]], [[American Psychological Association]], [[American Sociological Association]], [[Behavior Genetics Association]], and [[Cognitive Science Society]].  According to the report, regarding the question "The source of black-white difference in IQ":
-<blockquote>Respondents were asked to express their opinion of the role of genetic differences in the Black-White IQ differential. Forty-five percent believe the difference to be a product of both genetic and environmental variation, compared to only 15% who feel the difference is entirely due to environmental variation. Twenty-four percent of experts do not believe there are sufficient data to support any reasonable opinion, and 14% did not respond to the question. Eight experts (1%) indicate a belief in an entirely genetic determination.<ref>{{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}.</ref></blockquote>
+<blockquote>This is perhaps the central question in the IQ controversy. Respondents were asked to express their opinion of the role of genetic differences in the black-white IQ differential. Forty-five percent believe the difference to be a product of both genetic and environmental variation, compared to only 15% who feel the difference is entirely due to environmental variation. Twenty-four percent of experts do not believe there are sufficient data to support any reasonable opinion, and 14% did not respond to the question. Eight experts (1%) indicate a belief in an entirely genetic determination.<ref>{{AYref|Snyderman and Rothman|1987}}.</ref></blockquote>
 [[Robert Sternberg]] cautioned against supposing that the survey represented anything but opinion saying, "science isn't done by majority rule".<ref> (1995) [http://www.uclan.ac.uk/facs/science/psychol/Psychology/Skeptic.htm]</ref> Respondents on average called themselves slightly left of center politically, but political and social opinions accounted for less than 10% of the variation in responses.  Carol Swain, author of ''The New White Nationalism'' reacted with some dismay to the survey, stating:
-<blockquote>At least one important survey suggests that a belief in the biological inferiority of some races in regard to intelligence is more common than generally supposed. Smith College professor [[Stanley Rothman]] and Harvard researcher [[Mark Snyderman]] surveyed a sample of mostly scientific experts in the field of educational psychology in the late 1980s and found that 53 percent believed IQ differences between Whites and African Americans were at least partly genetic in origin, while only 17 percent attributed the IQ differences to environmental factors alone (the remainder either believed the data was currently insufficient to decide the issue or refused to answer the question).</blockquote>
+<blockquote>At least one important survey suggests that a belief in the biological inferiority of some races in regard to intelligence is more common than generally supposed. Smith College professor Stanley Rothman and Harvard researcher Mark Snyderman surveyed a sample of mostly scientific experts in the field of educational psychology in the late 1980s and found that 53 percent believed IQ differences between whites and African Americans were at least partly genetic in origin, while only 17 percent attributed the IQ differences to environmental factors alone (the remainder either believed the data was currently insufficient to decide the issue or refused to answer the question).</blockquote>
 According to the [[American Psychological Association]]'s [[Race and intelligence#Collective Statements|1995 task force report]] on intelligence research:
@@ Line 188: / Line 124: @@
 <blockquote>It is sometimes suggested that the Black/White differential in psychometric intelligence is partly due to genetic differences (Jensen, 1972). There is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis.<ref name="APA-report"/></blockquote>
-The APA subsequently published eleven critical responses in 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for the genetic hypothesis.<ref name=mackenzie/><ref>(''[[American Psychologist]]'', January 1997)</ref>  [[Charles Murray (author)|Charles Murray]], for instance, responded:<blockquote>Actually, there is no direct evidence at all, just a wide variety of indirect evidence, almost all of which the task force chose to ignore.<ref>Murray lists race differences in brain size, along with "IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of transracial adoption studies, the correlation of the Black-White difference with the g-loadedness of tests, regression to racial means across the range of IQ, or other relevant data" among the arguments omitted from the task force report.[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/production/files/murray0905.html#_ednref50]</ref></blockquote>
+The APA subsequently published eleven critical responses in 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for the genetic hypothesis.<ref name=mackenzie/><ref>(''[[American Psychologist]]'', January 1997)</ref>  [[Charles Murray (author)|Charles Murray]], for instance, responded:<blockquote>Actually, there is no direct evidence at all, just a wide variety of indirect evidence, almost all of which the task force chose to ignore.<ref>Murray lists race differences in brain size, along with "IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, the results of transracial adoption studies, the correlation of the black-white difference with the g-loadedness of tests, regression to racial means across the range of IQ, or other relevant data" among the arguments omitted from the task force report.[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/production/files/murray0905.html#_ednref50]</ref></blockquote>
 The report did agree with many of the non-race-based statements on intelligence made in ''The Bell Curve''<ref>The authors of the report agreed that IQ scores have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement.  They confirmed the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics (75% in adults). Consistent with Herrnstein and Murray's findings, they state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition.</ref> and concludes with a call for more reflection in debates on intelligence and for a "shared and sustained effort" in more research to answer the many unanswered questions that remain.<ref>"In a field where so many issues are unresolved and so many questions unanswered, the confident tone that has characterized most of the debate on these topics is clearly out of place. The study of intelligence does not need politicized assertions and recriminations; it needs self-restraint, reflection, and a great deal more research. The questions that remain are socially as well as scientifically important. There is no reason to think them unanswerable, but finding the answers will require a shared and sustained effort as well as the commitment of substantial scientific resources. Just such a commitment is what we strongly recommend."</ref>
 Coming advances in [[genetics]] and [[genomics]] are expected to soon provide the ability to test hypotheses about group differences more rigorously than has as yet been possible.<ref>{{AYref|Pinker|2006}}, {{AYref|Rowe|2005}}, {{AYref|Stock|2002}} pp. 44-47.</ref>
@@ Line 195: / Line 130: @@
 Researchers who believe that there is no significant genetic contribution to race differences in intelligence include {{AYref|Flynn|1980}}, {{AYref|Brody|1992}}, {{AYref|Neisser et al.|1996}}, {{AYref|Nisbett|1998}}, {{AYref|Mackintosh|1998}}, {{AYref|Jencks and Phillips|1998}}, and {{AYref|Fish|2002}}. Some scientists who emphasize cultural explanations do not necessarily exclude a small genetic influence. {{A(Y)ref|Reynolds|2000}} suggests up to 20% genetic influence be included in the cultural explanation. Researchers who believe that there are significant genetic contributions to race differences in intelligence include {{AYref|McGurk|1953}}, {{AYref|Garrett|1961}}, {{AYref|Shuey|1966}}, {{AYref|Shockley|1968}}, {{AYref|Eysenck|1971}}, {{AYref|Baker|1974}}, {{AYref|Loehlin et al.|1975}}, {{AYref|Vernon|1979}}, {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}, {{AYref|Waldman et al.|1994}}, {{AYref|Scarr|1995}}, {{AYref|Levin|1997}}, {{AYref|Jensen|1998b}}, {{AYref|Rushton|2000}}, and {{AYref|Gottfredson|2005b}}.
+===IQ Data from various sources===
-===Richard Lynn's{{Verify credibility}} IQ Data===
-{{Seealso|Race and intelligence (test data)}}
+{{main|Race and intelligence (test data)}}
+The gaps found between the average measures of races or ethnicities varies depending on methods used for racial grouping, the method and setting used to test intelligence<ref>Carraher, Carraher, and Schliemann (1985) studied a group of Brazilian street children. The investigation found that the same children who are able to do the mathematics needed to run their street businesses were often unable to do mathematics in a formal setting. See: ''Street Mathematics and School Mathematics'' By Terezinha Nunes, David William Carraher, Analucia Dias Schliemann ISBN 0521388139</ref>, the health and economic situation of the test takers, the interplay between the culture of the person taking the test and the culture of those who made the test, and the period in history when the test was performed.
-The information in the following tables is referenced to credible sources; however, it should be noted that some of these studies liberally synthesized their results from different sources and test methods.  In general comparisons should only be made between similar primary sources, but this is not always possible given the wide variety of IQ tests, the fluid and debatable nature of racial categorization, and the lack of large scale representative data sets. Among the factors that invalidate comparisons across the studies are environment of the test subjects as well as inherent biases in the test procedures.
+Depending on the way intelligence is measured a variety of gaps may be found between different racial and ethnic groups. Some groups that perform well on one task may do poorly on others. For example, [[Moroccan]] and North American individuals were asked in a study by Richard K. Wagner to remember patterns of Oriental rugs and pictures of everyday objects, such as a rooster and a fish. Moroccans who have long experience in the rug trade seemed to remember rug patterns better than the North American individuals.<ref>''Mind in Context: Interactionist Perspectives on Human Intelligence'' By [[Robert J. Sternberg]], [[Richard K. Wagner]]</ref> Linkewise, in 1979 Robert Serpell had Zambian and English children perform a number of tasks. He found that English children did better on a drawing task, but that Zambian children did better on a wire-shaping task.<ref>''Standardization of the Panga Munthu Test-A Nonverbal Cognitive Test Developed in Zambia Ravinder Kathuria'', [[Robert Serpell]] The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 67, No. 3, Assessment in the Context of Culture and Pedagogy (Summer, 1998), pp. 228-241</ref>
-{|Class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"}
-!bgcolor="efefef"|Richard Lynn, "Race Differences in Intelligence: An Evolutionary Analysis" 2006 Table 16.2 (indigenous populations)
+The modern controversy surrounding intelligence and race focuses on the results of IQ studies conducted during the second half of the 20th century, mainly in the United States and some other industrialized nations. On average, a difference of approximately one [[standard deviation]] was observed in the US between the mean IQ score of Blacks and Whites as adults. Most recent attempted compilations of average IQ by race place [[Ashkenazi Jews]] at the top, followed by [[East Asia]]ns, [[White (people)|Whites]], [[Hispanic]]s and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], and [[African Americans]].<ref>For example, see {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}; {{AYref|Lynn|1991a}}; {{AYref|Lynn|2006}}</ref> Whether these gaps have narrowed or not, especially regarding children which may or may not later also cause a narrowing for adults, is, as noted below, debated.
-!bgcolor="efefef"|Average IQ
-|-
+Over the years, there has been variation in both the observed average IQ of groups, as well as the relative relationships between the average IQ of groups. Early 20th century measures typically found Blacks on the low end, and Whites on the high end. Based on studies from the 1960s and 1970s, Flynn found a slightly lower average IQ of Japanese- and Chinese American children compared to White counterparts.<ref>In more than a dozen studies from the 1960s and 1970s analyzed by Flynn (1991, 2002), the mean IQs of Japanese- and Chinese American children were always around 97 or 98; none was over 100. These studies did not include other Asian groups such as the Vietnamese, Cambodians, or Filipinos; who tend to under perform academically and on conventional psychometric tests (See Flynn, 1991).</ref> Recent contemporary measures place Blacks on the low end, and Asians on the high end. <ref>{{AYref|Lynn|1982}} had reported that Japanese IQ was significantly higher than average IQ in the United States, and that Japanese IQ scores had risen over the past generation. {{AYref|Herrnstein and Murray|1994}}, {{AYref|Rushton and Jensen|2005}}, {{AYref|Lynn|2006}} find that the average IQ scores of East Asians in Asia, North America and Europe are significantly higher than 100.</ref>
-|Arctic Peoples||91
-|-
-|East Asians||105
-|-
-|Europeans||99
-|-
-|Native Americans (north & south)||86
-|-
-|Southern Asian & Northern Africans||84
-|-
-|Bushmen (southern Africa)||54
-|-
-|Africans (subsaharan)||67
-|-
-|Australians (aboriginals)||62
-|-
-|Southeast Asians||87
-|-
-|Pacific Islanders||85
-|}
 ==Media portrayal of intelligence differences==
-{{Main|Race and intelligence (Media portrayal)}}
-{{Seealso|Acting White}}
 [[Image:Scientific racism irish.gif|thumb|right|200px|Scientific Racism from an American magazine, ''Harper’s Weekly'', says that the Irish are similar to 'Negroes' and wonders why both groups are not extinct.]]
@@ Line 241: / Line 155: @@
  </ref>]]
+{{Main|Race and intelligence (Media portrayal)}}
+{{Seealso|Acting white}}
 Race and intelligence are sometimes portrayed as related in [[media]]. People of various races have been portrayed as more or less intelligent in media such as films, books, and newspapers. Likewise, reporting on research into race and intelligence has been criticized: either for giving scientific theories of race too much credit, or for rejecting the theories of some researchers in the name of racial harmony.
 Critics of contemporary media have highlighted portrayals of minorities as less intelligent<ref>[http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-05282004-130909/unrestricted/Smith_thesis.pdf THE PORTRAYALS OF MINORITY CHARACTERS IN ENTERTAINING ANIMATED CHILDREN’S PROGRAMS]</ref> (or in the case of Asians, on occasion more intelligent<ref>[http://www.modelminority.com/article2.html Media Portrayals of Major League Baseball Pitchers]</ref>) in films and movies.
-Entman and Rojeki assert that media images of Blacks may have profound effects on the perceptions by both Blacks and Whites about Black intellectual potential.<ref>Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. 2001</ref>
+Entman and Rojeki assert that media images of Blacks may have profound effects on the perceptions by both Blacks and Whites about black intellectual potential.<ref>Entman, Robert M. and Andrew Rojecki The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. 2001</ref>
-Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In ''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'' [[John Hoberman]] writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in Black communities.<ref>''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'' By [[John Hoberman|John Milton Hoberman]] ISBN 0395822920</ref>Film director [[Spike Lee]] explains that these images have negative impacts "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. "[Now] If you're intelligent, you're called a White guy or girl."<ref>[http://www.jhu.edu/~newslett/11-16-00/News/3.html Spike Lee discusses racial stereotypes]</ref>
+Even so-called positive images of Black people can lead to stereotypes about intelligence. In ''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'' [[John Hoberman]] writes that the prominence of African-American athletes encourages a de-emphasis on academic achievement in black communities.<ref>''Darwin's Athletes: how sport has damaged Black America and preserved the myth of race'' By [[John Hoberman|John Milton Hoberman]] ISBN 0395822920</ref>Film director [[Spike Lee]] explains that these images have negative impacts "In my neighborhood, we looked up to athletes, guys who got the ladies, and intelligent people," said Lee. "[Now] If you're intelligent, you're called a white guy or girl."<ref>[http://www.jhu.edu/~newslett/11-16-00/News/3.html Spike Lee discusses racial stereotypes]</ref>
-Blacks are not the only ethnic group in the US to be stereotyped as stupid. Shortly after the large waves of immigration in the 19th century and number of immigrant groups such as the Irish were stereotyped as being more closely related to apes or dogs<ref>Early [[Hereditarianism|hereditarian]] [[James Redfield]]'s 1852 book Comparative [[physiognomy]]; or, Resemblances between men and animals saw Irishmen as dog-like.</ref> and therefore intellectually inferior. This changed after the definition of "White" was expanded to include the Irish.<ref>''Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain'' Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter Feminist Review, No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487</ref> Unlike other racial stereotypes of intelligence, the 19th century psudo-scientific ideas about of Irish stupidity and inferiority are not supported by most [[Hereditarianism|hereditarian]] proponents of modern race research. Other stereotypes, of Blacks, Jews and Asians endure to this day<ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/exploring/19thcentury/alienmenace/assignment.php Alien Menace]</ref> as do the findings of Hereditarian researchers about these groups.
+Blacks are not the only ethnic group in the US to be stereotyped as stupid. Shortly after the large waves of immigration in the 19th century and number of immigrant groups such as the Irish were stereotyped as being more closely related to apes or dogs<ref>Early [[Hereditarianism|hereditarian]] [[James Redfield]]'s 1852 book Comparative [[physiognomy]]; or, Resemblances between men and animals saw Irishmen as dog-like.</ref> and therefore intellectually inferior. This changed after the definition of "white" was expanded to include the Irish.<ref>''Deconstructing Whiteness: Irish Women in Britain'' Mary J. Hickman, Bronwen Walter Feminist Review, No. 50, The Irish Issue: The British Question (Summer, 1995), pp. 5-19 doi:10.2307/1395487</ref> Unlike other racial stereotypes of intelligence, the 19th century psudo-scientific ideas about of Irish stupidity and inferiority are not supported by most [[Hereditarianism|hereditarian]] proponents of modern race research. Other stereotypes, of Blacks, Jews and Asians endure to this day<ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/exploring/19thcentury/alienmenace/assignment.php Alien Menace]</ref> as do the findings of Hereditarian researchers about these groups.
 == Controversies ==
@@ Line 329: / Line 245: @@
 ====Others====
-* [http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006608 Crippled by Their Culture - Race doesn't hold back America's Black rednecks. Nor does racism] by [[Thomas Sowell]]
+* [http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006608 Crippled by Their Culture - Race doesn't hold back America's black rednecks. Nor does racism] by [[Thomas Sowell]]
 * Race and IQ: [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/ThomasSowell/2002/10/01/race_and_iq Part 1], [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/ThomasSowell/2002/10/02/race_and_iq:_part_ii Part 2], [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/ThomasSowell/2002/10/03/race_and_iq:_part_iii Part 3] by [[Thomas Sowell]]
 * [http://skepdic.com/iqrace.html The ''Skeptic's Dictionary'' entry on IQ and race]

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