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{{for|the film also known as ''The Battle of Red Cliff'' |Red Cliff (film)}} |
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{{Infobox Military Conflict |
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|conflict=Battle of Red Cliffs |
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|partof=the wars of the [[Three Kingdoms]] |
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|image=[[Image:chibi.jpg|300px|Engravings on a cliffside near [[Chibi City]] ]] |
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|caption=Engravings on a cliff-side mark one widely-accepted site of Chìbì, near modern [[Chibi City]], [[Hubei]]. The engravings are at least a thousand years old. |
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|date=[[Winter#Period|Northern Winter]] 208 |
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|place=Debated. Referred to as Chibi (Red Cliffs), on the southern bank of the [[Yangtze River]] |
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|casus= |
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|territory= |
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|result=Decisive Sun Quan and Liu Bei victory |
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|combatant1=[[Sun Quan]] (Sun Chuan),<br/> [[Liu Bei]] (Liu Pei) |
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|combatant2=[[Cao Cao]] (Ts'ao Ts'ao) |
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|commander1=[[Zhou Yu]] (Chou Yü),<br/> [[Cheng Pu]],<br> Liu Bei <!-- NOTE: Do not add Zhuge Liang to this list; he was only a commander in ROTK, not in historic fact.--> |
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|commander2=Cao Cao |
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|strength1=50,000 |
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|strength2=220,000–240,000 (opponents' estimate) |
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|casualties1=Unknown |
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|casualties2=Unknown, though described as significant}} |
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{{Campaignbox Three Kingdoms}} |
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{{Campaignbox Red Cliffs campaign}} |
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The '''Battle of Red Cliffs''', otherwise known as the '''Battle of Chibi''', ({{zh-stp|s={{linktext|赤|壁|之|战}}|t={{linktext|赤|壁|之|戰}}|p={{linktext|Chì|bì| zhī| zhàn}}}}) was a decisive battle at the [[end of the Han Dynasty]], immediately prior to the period of the [[Three Kingdoms]] in China. It was fought in the [[Winter#Period|northern winter]] of [[Anno Domini|AD]] 208 between the allied forces of the southern warlords [[Liu Bei]] and [[Sun Quan]] and the numerically superior forces of the northern warlord [[Cao Cao]]. Liu Bei and Sun Quan successfully frustrated Cao Cao's effort to conquer the land south of the [[Yangtze River]] and reunite the territory of the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]]. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, gave them control of the Yangtze {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=273}}, and provided a line of defence that was the basis for the later creation of the two southern kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Shu|Shu Han]] ([[wikt:蜀|蜀]]) and [[Kingdom of Wu|Eastern Wu]] ([[wikt:吳|吳]]). |
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Descriptions of the battle differ widely on details; in fact, even the location of battle is still fiercely debated {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=256 ''78n''}}. Although its precise location remains uncertain, the majority of academic conjectures place it on the south bank of the Yangtze River at some location southwest of present-day [[Wuhan]] and northeast of [[Baqiu]] (modern [[Yueyang]] city in [[Hunan]] province). The most detailed account of the battle comes from the biography of [[Zhou Yu]] in the 3rd-century historical text ''[[Records of Three Kingdoms]]'' (''Sanguo Zhi''). An exaggerated and romanticised account is also a central event in ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', one of the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] of [[Chinese literature]]. |
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==Background== |
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By the early 3rd century, the Han Dynasty, which had ruled China for four centuries (albeit with a 16-year [[Wang Mang|interruption]], dividing the dynasty into its Western and Eastern periods), was crumbling. [[Emperor Xian of Han|Emperor Xian]] had been a political [[figurehead]] since 189, with no control over the actions of the various warlords controlling their respective territories. One of the most powerful rulers in northern China was the warlord Cao Cao, who, by the year 207, had [[Cao Cao's unification of northern China|unified northern China]] and retained total control of the [[North China Plain]]. He then completed a successful campaign against the [[Wuhuan]] in the winter of the same year, thus securing his northern frontier. Upon his return in 208, he was proclaimed to be the [[Chancellor of China|Imperial Chancellor of Han]], a position that granted him absolute authority over the entire imperial government {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|1969|pp=253, 465 ''6n''}}. Shortly afterwards, in the autumn of 208, his army began a Southern Campaign ({{Harvcolnb|Eikenberry|1994}}; {{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|2003}}). |
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The Yangtze River in the area of Jing province (which roughly corresponded to modern [[Hubei]] and [[Hunan]] [[Province of China|provinces]]) was key to the success of this strategy. If Cao Cao were to have any hope of reuniting the sundered Han empire, he had to achieve naval control of the middle Yangtze and command the strategic naval base at [[Jiangling]] as a means of access to the southern region {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2003}}. Two warlords controlled the regions of the Yangtze that were key to Cao Cao's success: [[Liu Biao]], Governor of Jing Province, controlled the river west of the mouth of the Han, roughly encompassing the area around the city of [[Hankou District|Xiakou]] and all territory south of that region. Sun Quan controlled the river east of the Han and the southeastern territories abutting it {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2007|pp=773}}. A third ally, Liu Bei, was living in refuge with Liu Biao at the garrison in [[Fancheng]] (modern [[Xiangfan]]), having fled from the northeast to the Jing Province following a failed plot to assassinate Cao Cao and restore power to the imperial dynasty ({{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|2007|p=480}}; {{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|1969|pp=258}}). |
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[[Image:Cao Cao Portrait.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cao Cao]], Qing Dynasty block print]] |
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The initial stages of the campaign were an unqualified success for Cao Cao, as the command of the Jing Province had been substantially weakened and the Jing armies exhausted by conflict with Sun Quan to the south {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2007|p=486}}. Factions had arisen supporting either of Liu Biao's two sons in a struggle for succession. The younger son prevailed, and Liu Biao's dispossessed eldest son, [[Liu Qi (Three Kingdoms)|Liu Qi]], departed to assume a [[commandery]] in [[Jiangxia]] {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|p=241}}. Liu Biao died of illness only a few weeks later, while Cao Cao was advancing from the north and, under these circumstances, Liu Biao's younger son and successor, [[Liu Cong (Three Kingdoms)|Liu Cong]], quickly surrendered. Cao Cao thus captured a sizeable fleet and secured the naval base at [[Jiangling]]. This provided him with a key strategic military depot and forward base to harbour his ships {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=246,250,255}}. |
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When Jing fell, Liu Bei quickly fled south, accompanied by a refugee population of civilians and soldiers. This disorganised exodus was pursued by Cao Cao's elite cavalry, and was surrounded and decisively beaten at the [[Battle of Changban]] (near the modern-day city of [[Dangyang]] in [[Hubei]]). Liu Bei escaped, however, and fled further east to [[Xiakou]], where he liaised with Sun Quan's emissary [[Lu Su]]. At this point historical accounts are inconsistent; Lu Su may have successfully encouraged Liu Bei to move even further east, to [[Fankou]] (樊口).<ref name="fankou">[[Chen Shou]]'s ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'' repeatedly asserts that Liu Bei was at Xiakou. Other historical accounts support this version as well. [[Records of the Three Kingdoms#Annotations from Pei Songzhi|Annotations]] to the text of the ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' made nearly two centuries later by [[Pei Songzhi]] support the Fankou version, thus Xiakou appears in the main text and Fankou in the annotations. This discrepancy is later reflected in contradictory passages in the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' by [[Sima Guang]] (and its English translation, {{Harvcoltxt|de Crespigny|2004|p=248}}), which has Liu Bei "quartered at Fankou" at the same time as Zhou Yu is requesting to send troops to Xiakou, and Liu Bei "waits anxiously" in Xiakou for the reinforcements. For a detailed discussion, see {{Harvcoltxt|Zhang|2006|pp=231–234}}.</ref> In either case, Liu Bei was later joined by Liu Qi and levies from Jiangxia {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|p=255}}. Liu Bei's main advisor, [[Zhuge Liang]], was sent to [[Chaisang]] (柴桑) to negotiate forming a mutual front against Cao Cao with the state of Wu {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|1969|p=263}}. |
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By the time Zhuge Liang arrived, Cao Cao had already sent Sun Quan a letter boasting of commanding 800,000 men and demanding Sun Quan's surrender. The faction led by Sun Quan's Chief Clerk, [[Zhang Zhao]], advocated surrender, citing Cao Cao's overwhelming numerical advantage. However, on separate occasions, Lu Su, Zhuge Liang, and Wu's chief commander, Zhou Yu, all presented arguments to persuade Sun Quan to agree to the alliance against the northerners. Sun Quan finally decided upon war, chopping off a corner of his desk during an assembly and stating: "Anyone who still dares argue for surrender will be [treated] the same as this desk." He then assigned Zhou Yu, [[Cheng Pu]], and Lu Su with 30,000 men to aid Liu Bei against Cao Cao {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|1996}}. |
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Although Cao Cao had boasted command of 800,000 men, Zhou Yu estimated Cao Cao's actual troop strength to be closer to 220,000. Furthermore, this total included 70,000 [[impressment|impressed]] troops from the armies of the recently defeated Liu Biao, so the loyalty and morale of a large number of Cao Cao's force was uncertain {{Harvcol|Eikenberry|1994|pp=60}}. With the 20,000 soldiers that Liu Bei had gathered, the alliance consisted of approximately 50,000 marines who were trained and prepared for battle {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=252;255}}. |
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==Battle== |
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[[Image:Chibizhizhan eng2.png|thumb|400px| Battle of Red Cliffs, and Cao Cao's retreat (also shown: [[Battle of Changban]]). Note that the battlefield location is marked at the site near [[Chibi City]]; see [[#Location of Red Cliffs|Location of Red Cliffs]]. ]] |
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The Battle of Red Cliffs unfolded in three stages: an initial skirmish at Red Cliffs followed by a retreat to the Wulin battlefields on the northwestern bank of the Yangtze, a decisive naval engagement, and Cao Cao's disastrous retreat along Huarong Road.<!-- NOTE: do not wikilink Huarong; modern Huarong is far south of ancient Huarong --> |
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The combined Sun-Liu force sailed upstream from either Xiakou or Fankou to Red Cliffs, where they encountered Cao Cao's vanguard force. Plagued by disease and low morale due to the series of forced marches they had undertaken on the prolonged Southern Campaign {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2003}}, Cao Cao's men could not gain an advantage in the small skirmish which ensued, so Cao Cao retreated to Wulin (north of the Yangtze River) and the allies pulled back to the south {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=257}}. |
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Cao Cao had moored his ships from stem to stern, possibly aiming to reduce seasickness in his navy, which comprised mostly northerners who were not used to living on ships. Observing this, divisional commander [[Huang Gai]] sent Cao Cao a letter feigning surrender and prepared a [[squadron]]<ref>The number of vessels in the squadron is unclear. As de Crespigny observes, "Firstly, ''Records of Three Kingdoms'' states that the number of vessels in Huang Gai's squadron was 'several tens,' but the parallel passage in ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]''... allocates Huang Gai only ten ships" {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=265}}.</ref> of [[capital ships]] described as ''mengchong doujian'' (蒙衝鬥艦).<ref name="mengchong">The exact nature of these vessels is unclear. {{Harvcoltxt|Zhang|2006|pp=218}} refers to them as "leather-covered assault warships," but the reference is parenthetical, as this issue is peripheral to the topic of Zhang's paper. In a lengthier discussion, {{Harvcoltxt|de Crespigny|2004|pp=266–268}} separates the two terms, describing ''mengchong'' as "...covered with some form of protective material... used to break the enemy line of battle and perhaps to damage their ships and men with a ram or by projectiles" and ''doujian'' as "...fighting platforms for spearmen and archers to engage in close combat..." {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=268}}. He concludes that ''mengchong doujian'' is a "general description for vessels of war" {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=265}}.</ref> The ships had been converted into [[fire ship]]s by filling them with bundles of kindling, dry reeds, and fatty oil. As Huang Gai's "defecting" squadron approached the midpoint of the river, the sailors applied fire to the ships before taking to small boats. The unmanned fire ships, carried by the southeastern wind, sped towards Cao Cao's fleet and set it ablaze. Within a short time smoke and flames stretched across the sky, and a large number of men and horses either burned to death or drowned {{Harvcol|Chen|c. 280|pp=54.1262-63}}. |
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Following the initial shock, Zhou Yu and the allies led a lightly armed force to capitalise on the assault. The northern army was thrown into confusion and was utterly smashed. Seeing the situation was hopeless, Cao Cao then issued a general order of retreat and destroyed a number of his remaining ships before withdrawing {{Harvcol|Chen|c. 280}}. |
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Cao Cao's army attempted a retreat along <!-- NOTE: do not wikilink Huarong; modern Huarong is far south of ancient Huarong -->Huarong Road, including a long stretch passing through marshlands north of [[Dongting Lake]]. Heavy rains had reduced the track to a thick [[mire]], making the road so treacherous that many of the sick soldiers had to carry bundles of grass on their backs and use them to fill the road, to allow the horsemen to cross. Many of these soldiers drowned in the mud or were trampled to death in the effort. To the misery of Cao Cao's army, the allies, led by Zhou Yu and Liu Bei, gave chase over land and water until they reached Nan Commandery (南郡). Combined with famine and disease, this decimated Cao Cao's remaining forces. Cao Cao then retreated north to his home base of [[Ye, China|Ye]], leaving [[Cao Ren]] and [[Xu Huang]] to guard Jiangling, [[Yue Jin]] stationed in [[Xiangyang]], and [[Man Chong]] in Dangyang {{Harvcol|Chen|c. 280}}. |
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The allied counterattack might have vanquished Cao Cao and his forces entirely. However, the crossing of the Yangtze River dissolved into chaos as the allied armies converged on the riverbank and fought over the limited number of ferries. To restore order, a detachment led by the allied general [[Gan Ning]] established a bridgehead in [[Yichang|Yiling]] to the north, and only a staunch rearguard action by Cao Ren prevented further catastrophe ({{Harvcolnb|Eikenberry|1994|pp=60}}; {{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|2007|pp=239}}). |
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==Analysis== |
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[[Image:Mengchong.png|thumb|One type of ship used in the battle - the ''mengchong'' (蒙衝): leather-covered assault warship designed to break enemy lines.]] |
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A combination of Cao Cao's strategic errors and the effectiveness of Huang Gai's ruse had resulted in the allied victory at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Zhou Yu had previously observed that Cao Cao's generals and soldiers comprised mostly cavalry and infantry, and few had any experience in naval warfare. Cao Cao also had little support among the people of Jing province, and thus lacked a secure forward base of operations {{Harvcol|Eikenberry|1994|pp=60}}. Despite the strategic acumen Cao Cao had displayed in earlier campaigns and battles, in this case he had simply assumed that numerical superiority would eventually defeat the Sun and Liu navy. Cao's first tactical mistake was converting his massive army of infantry and cavalry into a marine corps and navy: with only a few days of drills before the battle, Cao Cao's troops were ravaged by sea-sickness and lack of experience on water<!-- many sailors couldn't swim, it's not important unless your ship sinks: and many of his crew could not even swim to save themselves-->. Tropical diseases, to which the southerners had long been immune, also plagued the soldiers of the north with the debilitating effects of sickness rampant in Cao Cao's camps. Although numerous, Cao Cao's men were already exhausted by the unfamiliar environment and the extended southern campaign, as Zhuge Liang observed: "Even a powerful arrow at the end of its flight cannot penetrate a silk cloth" ([[#Reference-Military Documents-1979|Military Documents 1979:193]]). |
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The uncharacteristically poor preparation and miscalculations displayed by Cao Cao during this campaign may have been partly due to the recent death of his strategist and advisor [[Guo Jia]]. Cao Cao himself had commented: "Had Guo Jia been with us, I would never have got into such trouble" {{Harvcol|Chen|c. 280|pp=14:433}}. Another key advisor, [[Jia Xu]], had recommended after the surrender of Liu Cong that the overtaxed armies be given time to rest and replenish before engaging the armies of Sun Quan and Liu Bei, but Cao Cao disregarded the advice {{Harvcol|Eikenberry|1994|p=60}}. Cao Cao's own thoughts regarding his failure at Red Cliffs suggest that he held his own actions and misfortunes responsible for the defeat, rather than the strategies utilised by his enemy during the battle: "...it was only because of the sickness that I burnt my ships and retreated. It is out of all reason for Zhou Yu to take the credit for himself." {{Harvcol|Chen|c. 280|pp=54:1265}}. |
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==Aftermath== |
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By the end of 209, the post Cao Cao had established at Jiangling fell to Zhou Yu. The borders of the land under Cao Cao's control contracted about 160 kilometres (100 miles), to the area around [[Xiangyang]] {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=291}}. Liu Bei, on the other hand, had gained territory by taking over the four commanderies south of the Yangtze River. Sun Quan's troops had suffered far greater casualties than Liu Bei's in the extended conflict against Cao Ren following the Battle of Red Cliffs {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=291–292}}, and the death of Zhou Yu in 210 resulted in a drastic weakening of Sun Quan's strength in the Jing province {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=297}}. Liu Bei also occupied the Jing province that Cao Cao had recently lost—a strategic and naturally fortified area on the Yangtze River that Wu claimed for itself. The control of Jing provided Liu Bei with virtually unlimited access to the passage into Shu and important waterways into Wu, as well as dominion of the southern Yangtze River. |
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Never again would Cao Cao command so large a fleet as he had at Jiangling, nor would a similar opportunity to destroy his southern rivals present itself again {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2007|p=37}}. The Battle of Red Cliffs and the capture of Jing province by Liu Bei confirmed the separation of Southern China from the northern heartland of the [[Yellow River]] valley, and also foreshadowed a north-south axis of hostility which would resonate for centuries {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|p=260}}. |
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==Location== |
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[[Image:Chibizhizhanloc2.png|thumb|400px| Three possible locations of the Battle of Red Cliffs. A fourth possibility is an undefined locale in Jiayu County, downriver (northeast) of the Chibi City location.]] |
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The precise location of the Red Cliffs battlefield has long been the subject of both popular and academic debates, but has never been conclusively established.<ref>This discussion is largely drawn from {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006}}.</ref> Scholarly debates have continued for at least 1,350 years {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=215}}, and a number of arguments in favour of alternative sites have been put forward. There are clear grounds for rejecting at least some of these proposals, but four alternative locations are still advocated. According to {{Harvcoltxt|Zhang|2006}}, many of the current debates stem from the fact that the course and length of the Yangtze River between Wuli and Wuhan has changed since the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=225}}. The modern-day debate is also complicated by the fact that the names of some of the key locations have changed over the following centuries. For example, although modern Huarong city is located in Hunan, south of the Yangtze, in the 3rd century the city of that name was due east of Jiangling, considerably north of the Yangtze ({{Harvcolnb|Zhang|2006|pp=229}}; {{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|2004|pp=256 ''78n''}}). Moreover, one candidate site, Puqi (蒲圻), was renamed "[[Chibi City]]" (赤壁市) in 1998 in a direct attempt to tie this location to the historical battlefield.<ref> See [http://www.chibi.com.cn/col2080/col6057/ http://www.chibi.com.cn] </ref> |
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Historical records state that Cao Cao's forces retreated north across the Yangtze after the initial engagement at Red Cliffs, unequivocally placing the battle site on the south bank of the Yangtze. For this reason, a number of sites on the north bank have been discounted by historians and geographers. Historical accounts also establish east and west boundaries for a stretch of the Yangtze which encompasses all possible sites for the battlefield. The allied forces travelled upstream from either Fankou or Xiakou. Since the Yangtze flows roughly eastward towards the ocean (with northeast and southeast [[meanders]]), Red Cliffs must at least be west of Fankou, which is farther downstream. The westernmost boundary is also clear, since Cao Cao's eastern advance from Jiangling included passing Baqiu (modern [[Yueyang]] city in [[Hunan]] province) on the shore of [[Dongting Lake]]. The battle must also have been downstream (northeast) of that location ({{Harvcolnb|de Crespigny|2004|pp=256–257}}; {{Harvcolnb|Zhang|2006|pp=217}}). |
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One popular candidate for the battle site is Chibi Hill in [[Huangzhou]], sometimes referred to as "[[Su Dongpo]]'s Red Cliffs" or the "Literary Red Cliffs" (文赤壁). Support for this conjecture arises largely due to the famous 11th-century poem "First Rhapsody on the Red Cliffs," which equates the Huangzhou Hill with the battlefield location. The [[pinyin]] Romanization of this cliff's name is "Chibi", the same as the pinyin for Red Cliffs. However, the Chinese characters are completely different (赤鼻) as is their meaning ("Red Nose Hill"). This site is also on the north bank of the Yangtze, and is directly across from Fankou rather than upstream from it {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=215}}. Moreover, if the allied Sun/Liu forces left from Xiakou rather than Fankou, as the oldest historical sources suggest,<ref name="fankou"/> then the hill in Huangzhou would have been ''downstream'' from the point of departure, a possibility which cannot be reconciled with historical sources. |
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Puqi, now named Chibi City, is perhaps the most widely accepted candidate. To differentiate from Su Dongpo's Red Cliffs, the site is also referred to as the "Military Red Cliffs" (武赤壁). It is directly across the Yangtze from Wulin. This argument was first proposed in the early Tang Dynasty {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=217}}. There are also characters engraved in the cliffs (see image at the top of this page) suggesting that this is the site of the battle. The origin of the engraving can be dated to between the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasties, making it at least 1,000 years old {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=219;228}}. |
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Some sources mention the south banks of the Yangtze in Jiayu County (嘉鱼县) in the [[prefecture-level city]] of [[Xianning]] in [[Hubei]] province as a possible location. This would place the battlefield downstream from Puqi (Chibi City), a view that is supported by scholars of [[History of China|Chinese history]] such as [[Rafe de Crespigny]], [[Wang Li]] and [[Zhu Dongrun]], following the [[Qing Dynasty]] historical document ''[[Shui Jing Zhu]]'' {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=256}}. |
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Another candidate is [[Wuhan]], which straddles the Yangtze at the confluence of the Yangtze and Han rivers. It is east of both Wulin (and Chibi City across the river) and Jiayu. This metropolis was incorporated by joining three cities. There is a local belief in [[Wuhan]] that the battle was fought at the junction of the rivers, southwest of the former [[Wuchang, Hubei|Wuchang]] city, which is now part of Wuhan {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=256 ''n 78''}}. {{Harvcoltxt|Zhang|2006|pp=215;223}} asserts that the Chibi battlefield was one of a set of hills in Wuchang that were levelled in the 1930s so that their stone could be used as raw material.<ref>C.P. Fitzgerald described the location in 1926: "But there was the... two rivers, the [[Han River (Hanshui)|Han]] and the... Yangtze, across them, respectively, [[Hanyang]] and Wuchang... The confluence of the Han... and the Yangtze... made Wuhan... a key strategic centre. Hanyang is backed by a long, low hill, called Tortoise Mountain, which faces the hill on the eastern slope of which Wuchang is built. The two hills narrow the Yangtze at this point by perhaps as much as a third of its width above and below them. The passage is dominated by a high bluff, called Chi Bi, "The Red Cliff," the scene of a famous naval battle in the fourth [sic] century. It is at this point that the great bridge, carrying railway and road, has been constructed in the fledgling years of the [[Peoples' Republic of China]] {{Harvcol|Fitzgerald|1985|pp=90; 92–93}}.</ref> Citing several historical-geographical studies, {{Harvcoltxt|Zhang|2006}} shows that earlier accounts place the battlefield in Wuchang. Sheng Honzhi's 5th-century ''Jingzhou ji'' in particular places the Chibi battlefield a distance of 160 [[Li (unit)|li]] (approximately {{convert|80|km|mi}}) downstream from Wulin, but since the Paizhou and Luxikou meanders increased the length of the Yangtze River between Wuli and Wuchang by 100 [[Li (unit)|li]] (approximately {{convert|50|km|mi}}; ''see map'') some time in the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties {{Harvcol|Zhang|2006|pp=225}}, later works do not regard Wuchang as a possible site. |
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==Fictionalised account== |
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The romantic tradition that originated with the ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' differs from historical accounts in many details. For example, Cao Cao's army strength was exaggerated to over 800,000 men. This may be attributed to the ethos of later times, particularly of the [[Southern Song Dynasty]] {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2007|pp=483}}. The Shu kingdom in particular was viewed by later literati as the "legitimate" successor to the Han empire, so fictionalised accounts assign greater prominence than the historical records warrant to the roles of [[Liu Bei]], [[Zhuge Liang]] and other heroes from Shu. This is generally accomplished by minimising the importance of Wu commanders and advisors such as Zhou Yu and Lu Su {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|p=xi}}. While historical accounts describe Lu Su as a sensible advisor and Zhou Yu as an eminent military leader and "generous, sensible and courageous" man, the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' depicts Lu Su as unremarkable and Zhou Yu as cruel and cynical {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=300; 305–306 ''29n''}}. Both are depicted as being inferior to Zhuge Liang in every respect {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=264}}. |
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The romances added wholly fictional and fantastical elements to the historical accounts and these were repeated in popular plays and operas. Examples from the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' include Zhuge Liang using [[Sorcery|magic]] to call forth favourable winds for the fire ship attack, his strategy of "[[Zhuge Liang#Using straw boats to borrow arrows|using straw boats to borrow arrows]]", and Guan Yu capturing and [[Guan Yu#Releasing Cao Cao at Huarong Trail|releasing Cao Cao]] at Huarong Trail. The fictionalised accounts also name [[Zhuge Liang]] as a military commander in the combined forces, which is not historically accurate {{Harvcol|de Crespigny|2004|pp=260-264}}. |
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==Modern and cultural impact== |
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Modern day [[Chibi City]] in [[Hubei]] province was formerly named Puqi. In 1998, the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese State Council]] approved the renaming of the city in celebration of the battle at Red Cliffs. Cultural festivals held by the city have dramatically increased tourism. ([[#Reference-Xinhua-1997|Xinhua 1997]]). In 1983, a statue of prominent [[Song Dynasty]] poet, [[Su Shi]], was erected at the Huangzhou site of 'Su Dongpo's Red Cliffs' in tribute to his writings regarding Red Cliff ([[#Reference-Xinhua-1983|Xinhua 1983]]). |
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Popular [[video game]]s based around the Three Kingdoms era (such as the ''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' series, ''[[Sangokushi Koumeiden]]'', ''[[Destiny of an Emperor]]'' and ''[[Kessen II]]'') have scenarios that include the battle. Other games utilise the Battle of Red Cliffs as their central focus. These include titles popular in Asia, such as the original Japanese version of ''[[Warriors of Fate]]'' and ''[[Dragon Throne: Battle of Red Cliffs]]''. |
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A 2008 film, directed by [[John Woo]] and titled ''[[Red Cliff (film)|Red Cliff]]'',<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.monkeypeaches.com/battleofredcliff.html | title = The Battle of Red Cliff (Chi Bi) - MonkeyPeaches | accessdate = 2007-11-25}}</ref> was intended to showcase the Red Cliff legacy in the lead up to the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] hosted by China. The film was a resounding success at the Chinese box office and, as of October 19, 2008, the film has grossed over 470 million yuan (US $68 million).<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/2008/WARRC.php | title = ''Red Cliff'' Box Office Data - [[The Numbers (website)|The Numbers]] | accessdate = 2008-10-19}}</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==References== |
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{{ChineseText}} |
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{{refbegin}} |
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*{{wikicite|id=Xinhua-1983|reference="11th century writer's statue erected in Hubei province". [[Xinhua News Agency]], January 19, 1983. Retrieved on July 22, 2007}}. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=Chen|Given=Shou|Year=c. 280|Title=Sanguo zhi (History of the Three Kingdoms)|Place=Reprint,1959. Beijing|Publisher=Zhonghua shuju}}. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Title=Why China? Recollections of China 1923-1950|Year=1985|Given=C.P.|Surname=Fitzgerald|Place=Melbourne|Publisher=Melbourne University Press}}. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny]]|Given=[[Rafe de Crespigny|Rafe]]|Year=1969|Title=The Last of the Han: being the chronicle of the years 181-220 AD as recorded in chapters 58–68 of the [[Zizhi Tongjian|Tzu-chih t'ung-chien]] of [[Sima Guang|Ssu-ma Kuang]]|Publisher=Australian National University, Centre of Oriental Studies|Place=Canberra}}. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=de Crespigny|Given=Rafe|Title=[http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/gos_index.html Generals of the South: The foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu]|Publisher=Australian National University|Place=Canberra|Year=2004}}. Internet Edition. |
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*{{Harvrefcol|Surname=de Crespigny|Given=Rafe|Title=[http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/peace2_index.html To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 220 AD] as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the [[Zizhi Tongjian]] of [[Sima Guang]]|Publisher=Australian National University|Place=Canberra|Year=1996}}. Internet Edition 2004. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=de Crespigny|Given=Rafe|Year=2003|Title=[http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/3KWJin.html The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin A history of China in the Third Century AD]}} Internet edition. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=de Crespigny|Given=Rafe|Title=A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)|Publisher=Brill|Place=Leiden, The Netherlands|Year=2007}}. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0 |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=Eikenberry|Given=Karl W.|Journal=Military Review|Title=The campaigns of Cao Cao|Year=1994|Volume=74|Issue=8|Pages=56–64}}. |
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* {{wikicite|id=Military Documents-1979|reference=The Military Documents Research Organization of the Wuhan Military District (1979). ''Zhongguo Gudai Zhanzheng Yibaili'' (One Hundred Battles of Ancient Chinese History). Wuhan: Hubei Province People's Publishing House}}. |
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* {{Harvrefcol|Surname=Zhang|Given=Xiugui|Title=Ancient "Red Cliff" battlefield: a historical-geographic study|Journal=Frontiers of History in China|Volume=1|Issue=2|Pages=214–35|Year=2006}}. |
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*{{wikicite|id=Xinhua-1997|reference="Ancient battlefield turns to tourism site". [[Xinhua News Agency]], June 11, 1997. Retrieved on July 22, 2007}}. |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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*[http://RegInstitute.atspace.us/Proceedings(8-12-08).PIF "Looking Back on Red Cliffs."] An in-depth analysis of the decisions and psychology of the commanders on the field of the battle. |
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Revision as of 23:32, 4 January 2009
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