Australian English

Australian English (AuE) is the form of the English language used in Australia.

Relationship to other varieties of English

Australian English began to diverge from British English soon after the foundation of the colony of New South Wales (NSW) in 1788. The settlement was intended originally as a penal colony for British convicts. They were mostly people from large English cities, such as Cockneys. In 1827, Peter Cunningham, in his book Two Years in New South Wales, reported that native-born white Australians spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, albeit with a strong Cockney influence. (The transportation of convicts to Australian colonies continued until 1868.) A much larger wave of immigration, as a result of the first Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, also had a significant influence on Australian English, including large numbers of people who spoke English as a second language. Since that time, Australian English has borrowed increasingly from external sources.

The so-called "Americanisation" of Australian English — signified by the borrowing of words, terms and usages from American English — which began during the goldrushes, was accelerated by a massive influx of US military personnel during World War II. The large-scale importation of television programs and other mass media content from the United States, from the 1950s onwards, has also had a significant effect. As a result, for example, Australians use the word truck instead of the British lorry.

Due to their shared history and geographical proximity, Australian English is most similar to New Zealand English. However, the difference between the two spoken versions is obvious to people from either country, if not to a casual observer from a third country. The vocabulary used also exhibits some striking differences.

Spelling

The exposure to the different spellings of British and American English leads to a certain amount of spelling variation such as organise/organize. British spelling is generally preferred, although some words are usually written in the American form, such as program and jail rather than programme and gaol (although commonly one could be 'jailed' in a 'gaol'). Publishers, schools, universities and governments typically use the Macquarie Dictionary as a standard spelling reference. Both -ise and -ize are accepted, as in British English, but '-ise' is the preferred form in Australian English by a ratio of about 3:1 according to the Australian Corpus of English.

There is a widely-held belief in Australia that American spellings are a modern "intrusion", but the debate in fact goes back to the 19th century. A pamphlet titled The So Called "American Spelling.", printed in Sydney over 100 years ago, argued that "there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc." At the time it was noted that "the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form". Some Melbourne newspapers once excised the "u", but do not anymore, and the Australian Labor Party officially adopted the '-or' ending in 1912.

Irish influences

There is some influence from Hiberno-English, but perhaps not as much as might be expected given that many Australians are of Irish descent. Perhaps most noticeable is the widespread – but not universal – pronunciation of the name of the letter "H" as "haitch" /hæɪtʃ/, rather than the unaspirated "aitch" /æɪtʃ/ found in New Zealand, as well as most of Britain and North America. This is most often found amongst speakers of Broad Australian English and is thought to be the influence of Irish Catholic priests and nuns. Others include the non-standard plural of "you" as "youse" /jʉːz/, which is common in some social circles, and the expression "good on you" or "good onya", although the former is common throughout North America and the latter is also encountered in New Zealand English and British English. Another usage indicative of an Irish influence is use of the word 'me' replacing 'my'. Example: Where's me hat?

Samples of Australian English

The Australian Broadcasting Corporation provides many streams of their radio programmes.

Non-Australians can also gain an impression of Australian English from well-known actors and other native speakers. The voices of Cate Blanchett, Russell Crowe, Nicole Kidman, Hugh Jackman and Naomi Watts are examples of General Australian accents, unless they are acting in roles as non-Australians. Several Australian actors provided voices for Finding Nemo: Nigel the pelican, the three sharks, and the dentist have Australian accents. Television star Steve "Crocodile hunter" Irwin has a Broad Australian accent (see below) and as a result his voice is often parodied inside Australia as well as out. John O'Grady's novel They're a Weird Mob has many good examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech during the 1950s, such as "owyergoinmateorright?" ("how're you going mate, alright?") and Tom Keneally's novels, particularly The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, of putatively 19th century Australianisms such as "yair" for "yes" and "nothink" for "nothing."

Vocabulary

Main article: Australian words

The origins of Australian words

Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to their country. One of the best-known of these is outback which means remote, sparsely-populated areas. The similar bush can mean either native forests, or country areas in general. Both terms are historically widely used in many English speaking countries, however. Many such words, phrases or usages originated with the British convicts transported to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example: a creek in Australia, as in North America, is any stream or small river, whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea; paddock is the Australian word for a field, while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock and; wooded areas in Australia are known as bush or scrub, as in North America, while in England, they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs). Cockney and Australian English also both use the word mate to mean a close friend of the same gender (rather than the conventional meaning of "a spouse"), although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English.

The origins of other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. Dinkum (or "fair dinkum") means "true", or when used in speech: "is that true?", "this is the truth!", and other meanings, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the Australian goldrushes of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the Cantonese (or Hokkien) ding kam, meaning "top gold". However, scholars give greater credence to the notion that it originated with a now-extinct dialect word from the East Midlands in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant "hard work" or "fair work", which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[1] The derivation dinky-di means a native-born Australian.

Similarly, g'day, a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with "good day" in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for "farewell", as "good day" is in other countries.

Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example dingo, kangaroo). Beyond that, some terms have been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are cooee, yarn and Hard yakka. The former is a high-pitched call (pronounced /kʉː.iː/) which travels long distances and is used to attract attention. Cooee has also become a notional distance: if he's within cooee, we'll spot him. Yarn means to chat or tell a story. This has further evolved into spin a yarn for telling a long and engaging tale. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Yagara/Jagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word bung meaning broken. A failed piece of equipment might be described as having gone bung.

Though often thought of as an Aboriginal word, didgeridoo (a well known wooden musical instrument) is probably an onomatopaoeic word of Western invention. It has also been suggested that it may have an Irish derivation.[2]

Varieties of Australian English

Most linguists consider that there are three main varieties of Australian English: "Broad", "General" and "Cultivated". These three main varieties are actually part of a continuum and are based on variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the social class and/or educational background of the speaker.

Broad Australian English

Broad Australian English is the archetypal and most recognisable variety and is familiar to English speakers around the world, because of its use in identifying Australian characters in non-Australian films and television programs. In reality it is less common than General Australian English. Broad Australian English is recognisable by a certain nasal drawl and the prevalence of long diphthongs. Broad Australian English is more likely to be encountered when travelling farther away from the capital cities.

General Australian English

General Australian English is the stereotypical variety of Australian English. It is the variety of English used by the majority of Australians and it dominates the accents found in contemporary Australian-made films and television programs, such as Neighbours. This variety has noticeably shorter vowel sounds than Broad Australian English, among other differences. There is perhaps a trend towards General Australian away from the extremes.

Cultivated Australian English

Cultivated Australian English (CAE) has many similarities to British Received Pronunciation, and is often mistaken for it. CAE is now spoken by less than 10% of the population. An overwhelmingly large and growing majority of Australians now have either General or Broad accents. One effect of this is that the speech of people like Alexander Downer, the Minister for Foreign Affairs is mocked as sounding "affected", "snobby" or "aloof", when his accent is simply an example of CAE, reinforced by the fact that he completed his secondary schooling at a public school in England and went to university there. CAE was once common among public figures in Australia.

Examples of Broad, General and Cultivated Australian accents

Examples of each include the normal speaking voices of the following identities:

Broad

• Prime Minister Bob Hawke
• actor Bryan Brown
• actor Paul Hogan
• television personality Steve Irwin
• television/stage character Dame Edna Everage

General

• Prime Minister John Howard
• actress Nicole Kidman
• actor Hugh Jackman
• actor Russell Crowe
• actor Jesse Spencer

Cultivated

• actress Judy Davis
• Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser
• actor Geoffrey Rush
• opera singer Dame Joan Sutherland
• comedian/actor Barry Humphries

Regional variation

It is sometimes claimed that regional variations in pronunciation and accent exist, but if present at all they are very small compared to those of British and American English – sufficiently so that linguists are divided on the question. Overall, pronunciation is determined less by region than by social and educational influences.

Regional vocabulary

There is, however, some variation in Australian English vocabulary between different regions. An example often cited by linguists is the variety of names given by Australians to bland, processed pork products – known in other countries as pork luncheon meat or baloney – is so great, that these words are used by linguists to ascertain not only which Australian state or territory a person is from, but also regional origin within states in some cases. For example, in South Australia (SA) this product is known as fritz, for most people in Victoria (Vic) it is stras, in most of New South Wales (NSW) it is devon, in Western Australia (WA) polony, in Queensland (Qld) windsor ("devon" is also used), in Tasmania (Tas) belgium, and so on. (See Australian words for processed pork, for more details.)

Regional variation does not respect state borders, and this is shown, for example, by the fact that both Queenslanders and people from northern New South Wales say port (short for portmanteau) while people in the other states say case, school bag, backpack and/or knapsack. In the past variation was so strong that the residents of the NSW town of Maitland would use the word port where Newcastle, some 20 kilometres away, would prefer the latter term.

There is also great variety in the names of beer glasses from one area to another. For example, a standard 285ml (10 fl.oz.) glass, in different states or regions, is known as a middy (NSW/WA/ACT), pot (Vic/Qld/Tas), handle (NT/SA), ten (SA/Tas) or schooner (SA). Such variation causes great confusion, especially since a schooner is a 425 ml (15 fl.oz.) glass in every state that uses the word except SA. (See Australian words for beer glasses for a full list.)

Although swimwear is known as bathers in most areas, people in NSW and Queensland do not conform, preferring terms such as swimmers, cossie or togs (see Australian words for swimwear).

Another example is the word tuckshop which is used in Queensland and northern NSW to describe a food outlet on school premises; the word canteen is now more common in other areas of Australia, although tuckshop may occasionally be used in those areas as well.

There are many regional variations for describing social classes or subcultures. The best example is probably bogan (fairly universal), which is also referred to as bevan in Queensland and booner in the ACT.

The differences are not restricted to words. For example, it is often said that people from some parts of Queensland end sentences with the interrogative "eh?" (or "hay?", "hey", and so on), although this is also common in both New Zealand English and Canadian English.

The steadily increasing centralisation of film, TV and radio production, however, may be spreading new words more rapidly and blurring such distinctions.

See also: South Australian English and Western Australian English

Sport variations

Many regional variations are as a result of the Australian passion for sport and the differences in non-linguistic traditions from one state to another: the word football refers to the most popular code of football in different States or regions, or even ethnic groups within them. Victorians start a game of Australian rules football with a ball up, Western Australians with a bounce down; New South Welsh people and Queenslanders start a game of Rugby League or Rugby Union with a kick off, as do soccer fans across Australia.

In the early 21st century the national governing body for football (soccer) attempted to foster use of "football" to mean soccer, in accordance with general international usage. It is yet to be seen whether this will spead into the mainstream, however it is important to note that several media outlets have adopted the use of the word football in accordance with this.

The Australian slang word footy has been traditionally associated with the native code of Australian rules football. The word has also been adopted to a lesser degree by rugby league followers, following directly from the association of the word to describe the most popular football code. Examples in popular culture includes the The Footy Show. More recently it has been adopted in other countries in reference to other codes, such as the UK (soccer) and New Zealand (rugby union).

For many Australian rules followers, the verb barrack (or the accompanying noun form barracker), is used to describe following a team or club. (In New South Wales and Queensland the term support or supporter is generally used instead.) Barrack has its origins in British English, although in the UK it now usually means to jeer or denigrate an opposing team or players. The expression "root (or rooting) for a team", as used in the United States, is not generally used in Australia as root (or rooting) is slang for sexual intercourse.

Phonology

Main article: Australian English phonology

Australian English is a non-rhotic variety. It is unique in its remarkable homogeneity over a vast area. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a phonemic length distinction. It has a reasonably standard consonant inventory.

See also: Phonemic differentiation

Myths about Australian accents

Australian English is sometimes described as high-pitched, nasal, lazy or drawling. The claims of high pitch and nasality are not entirely true, as many Australian English speakers perceive much of American English to be nasal, while laziness and drawling are impossible to test objectively.

Similarly, stereotypes of Australian speech as having a "rising tone" or "questioning intonation", known in linguistics as high rising terminal, are not entirely justified by the empirical evidence. Many Australians' speech patterns do not conform to this stereotype, and the "questioning intonation" can be found in many regional speech patterns, such as those in the south of England, Northern Ireland, and even North America.

Use of words by Australians

Perception has it that a common trait is the frequent use of long-winded similes, such as "slow as a wet week", "built like a brick shit-house", "mad as a cut snake", "up and down like a bride's nightie", "dry as a dead dingo's donger", "off like prawns in the sun", "sweating like a pig on fire", or "flat out like a lizard drinking". Moreover, several such expressions are common in many parts of the English-speaking world and are only perceived as uniquely Australian by Australians.

Many Australians believe themselves to be direct in manner, and this is typified by statements such as "why call a spade a spade, when you can call it a bloody shovel". Such sentiments can lead to misunderstandings and offence being caused to people from cultures where an emphasis is placed on avoiding conflict, such as people from East Asia.

Spoken Australian English is generally more tolerant of offensive and/or abusive language than other variants. A famous exponent was the former Prime Minister Paul Keating, who referred in Parliament to various political opponents as a "mangy maggot", a "stupid foul-mouthed grub", and so on. He drew ire from then Malaysian leader Mahathir Mohammed for calling him a "recalcitrant". This tradition was continued by fellow Labor MP Mark Latham who, in 2002, unapologetically described a visit by Prime Minister John Howard to George W. Bush as "an arse-licking effort". The widespread desire among Australians to avoid pomposity, leading to a rejection of even formal or dignified speech, is sometimes seen as reflecting a suspicion of success in general, a phenomenon sometimes known as the tall poppy syndrome, another term widely used in the English speaking world but perceived by many Australians to be a local coinage.

Humour

An important aspect of Australian English usage, inherited in small part from Britain and Ireland, is the use of deadpan humour, in which a person will make extravagant, outrageous and/or ridiculous statements in a neutral tone, and without explicitly indicating they are joking. Tourists seen to be gullible and/or lacking a sense of humour may be subjected to tales of kangaroos hopping across the Sydney Harbour Bridge and similar tall tales. (See also Drop Bear.)

Diminutives

Australian English makes far more frequent use of diminutives than other varieties of English. These which can be formed in a number of ways such as adding -o or -ie to the ends of abbreviated words. They can be used to indicate familiarity, although in many speech communities the diminutive form is more common than the original word or phrase.

Examples with the -o ending include abo (aborigine, now considered offensive), arvo (afternoon), doco (documentary), servo (service station, known in other countries as a "petrol station" or "gas station"), bottle-o (bottle-shop or liquor store), rego (still pronounced with a /ʤ/) (annual motor vehicle registration), compo (compensation), leso or lesbo (lesbian, also offensive, pronounced with a /z/), ambo (ambulance officer). The Salvation Army is often referred to as "The Salvos". The city of Fremantle is known by many of its inhabitants as Freo. Filipino youth in Australia refer to themselves as being a Filo, a word not used by Filipino Americans.

Examples of the -ie ending include barbie (barbecue), bikkie (biscuit), bikie (member of a motorcycle club), brekkie (breakfast), blowie (blowfly), brickie (brick layer), mozzie (mosquito), and pollie (politician). The city of Brisbane is often called Brissie (pronounced with a /z/).

Occasionally, a -za diminutive is used, usually for personal names where the first of multiple syllables ends in an "r". Karen becomes Kazza and Jeremy becomes Jezza. Also popular and common is the -z diminutive form (also found in British English) whereby Karen becomes Kaz and so on.

Other diminutive forms include:

• last one or two syllables, prefaced with a definite article: for example, The Gabba for the Brisbane Cricket Ground at Woolloongabba; The Gong for Wollongong.
• first syllable plus "-s": turps turpentine (usually referring to drinking alcohol, e.g. "a night on the turps") or Ian Turpie; Gabs, pet form of Gabrielle.
• first syllable plus "-ers": Honkers (Hong Kong).

Rarely Used Phrases

Because of the caricaturised over-use, or "Hollywoodisation", of some phrases attributed to Australians, some of these have dropped out of common conversation (at least in most urban areas). Words being used less often are strewth and crikey, and archetypal phrases like Flat out like a lizard drinking are rarely heard without a sense of irony.

Other terms were never used in the first place. The much-quoted line "Throw another shrimp on the barbie" was a phrase that has never been used by Australians, but was a concoction of the Australian Tourist Commission for a US advertisement for tourism to Australia. "Shrimp" is an international English term — they are called prawns in Australia.

See also

• Australian Aboriginal English
• International Phonetic Alphabet for English
• IPA chart for English
• Nickname

References

• Harrington, J., F. Cox, and Z. Evans (1997). "An acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels". Australian Journal of Linguistics. 17: 155–84.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Mitchell, Alexander G., 1995, The Story of Australian English, Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.
• Peters, Pam. (1986) "Spelling principles", In: Peters, Pam, ed., Style in Australia: Current Practices in Spelling, Punctuation, Hyphenation, Capitlisation, etc.,
• The So Called "American Spelling." Its Consistency Examined. pre-1900 pamphlet, Sydney, E. J. Forbes. Quoted by Annie Potts in this article

External links

• Australian National Dictionary Centre
• ABC.net Australian Word Map
• Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology
• Macquarie Dictionary
• World English Organisation
• Aussie English for beginners -- the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge at the National Museum of Australia.