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==Ethnic slurs==
==Ethnic slurs==
===Against Cantonese people===

*嶺南猴子 (lǐngnán hóuzi) - "monkey of the south", a slur for [[Cantonese people]]. This slur refer to the body size of Cantonese and skin tone because of their [[Negrito]] linkage.<ref name="A spatial analysis of genetic structure of human populations in China reveals distinct difference between maternal and paternal lineages">{{cite journal|last=Xue|first=Fuzhong|coauthors=9|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|year=2008|volume=16|pages=705–717|url=http://www.picb.ac.cn/picb-dynamic/admin/pic/A%20spatial%20analysis%20of%20genetic%20structure%20of%20human.pdf|accessdate=1 May 2011}}</ref>
*粵猴 (yuèhóu) - "Yue(viet) monkey", a slur similar to 嶺南猴子, but more focus on Cantonese people's Yue origin.
Slurs against Cantonese people become more and more popular among northern Han Chinese after the [[Controversy over use of Cantonese by Guangzhou Television]] happened in July–August 2010.

===Against Europeans and Westerners===
===Against Europeans and Westerners===
{{Main|Anti-Western sentiment in China}}
{{Main|Anti-Western sentiment in China}}

Revision as of 10:21, 25 March 2012

Ethnic issues in the People's Republic of China are complex and arise from the influences of Chinese history, Chinese nationalism, and many other factors. Ethnic issues have driven multiple Chinese historical movements, including Red Turban Rebellion — which targeted Mongol leaderships of the Yuan Dynasty — as well as in the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the Qing Dynasty. An ethnic dynamic is sometimes seen in modern unrest, such as the July 2009 Ürümqi riots.

Causes

Racism in Ancient China

Throughout the ages Chinese have had only two ways of looking at foreigners. We either look up to them as gods or down on them as wild animals. - Lu Xun[1]

Westerners shown as pig and goat and being exceuted by Chinese officials, image from the Boxer Rebellion

Pejorative statements about non-Han Chinese are often found in ancient Chinese texts. For example, a 7th century commentary to the Hanshu by Yan Shigu on the Wusun people likens "barbarians who have green eyes and red hair" to macaque monkeys.[2]

Conflicts between difference races also resulted in genocide. Ran Min, a Han chinese leader, during the Wei–Jie war, massacred non Chinese Wu Hu peoples around 350 A.D. with the Jie people particularly affected.[3]

Rebels slaughtered many Arabs and Persian merchants in the Yangzhou massacre (760). The Arab historian Abu Zayd Hasan of Siraf reports when Huang Chao captured Guang Prefecture, his army killed a large number of foreign merchants resident there: Muslims, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, in the Guangzhou massacre.[4]

Major ethnic conflicts in China

Racism by minorities

The Mongols divided different races into a four-class caste system during the Yuan dynasty.

The Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan had introduced a hierarchy of reliability by dividing the population of the Yuan Dynasty into the following classes:

Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were Turkestani and Persian Muslims, and Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.

Despite the high position given to Muslims, the Yuan Mongols severe discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like Circumcision, as well as Kosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims "slaves".[5][6] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined Han chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had the name in chinese which meant "baracks" and also mean "thanks", many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they also played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han chinese.[7]

Uyghurs have also exhibited racism as well. the Uyghur leader Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki made the following proclamation on Han chinese and Tungans (Hui Muslims):

"The Tungans, more than the Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans also. The reason we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensely oppose, cannot afford to be polite. Since the Tungans have compelled us, we must be this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers...From now on we do not need to use foreigners language, or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written language, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colors yellow and black are foul. They have dirtied our land for too long. So now it is absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down the yellow and black barbarians! Long live Eastern Turkestan!"[8][9]

American telegrams reported that certain Uyghur mobs in parts of Xinjiang were calling for White Russians to be expelled from Xinjiang, now that they had expelled Han Chinese. They were reported to say, "We freed ourselves from the yellow men, now we must destroy the white". The telegram also reported that "Serious native attacks on people of other races frequent. White Russians in terror of uprising."[10]

During the late 19th century around Qinghai tensions exploded between different muslim sects, between different ethnic groups, with emminty and division rising between Hui muslims and Salar Muslims, and all tensions rising between muslims, Tibetans and Han.[11]

The "Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8" stated that the Dungan and Panthay revolts by the Muslims was set off by racial antagonism and class warfare, rather than the mistaken assumption that it was all due to Islam and religion that the rebellions broke out.[12]

Racial segregation

Several laws enforcing racial segregation of foreigners were passed by the Han chinese during the Tang Dynasty. In 779 AD, Tang dynasty issued an edict which forced Uighurs to wear their ethnic dress, and restricted them from marrying Chinese. Chinese disliked Uighurs because they practiced usury.

In 836 AD Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and restricting foreigners to own properties.[13] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", etc.[14][15]

Racial composition

China's ethnic composition is largely homogeneous with 91.9% of the population being Han Chinese, other ethnicities are Mongols, Zhuang, Miao, Hui, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Koreans.[16]

Some ethnic groups are more distinguishable due to physical appearances and relatively low intermarriage rates. Many others have intermarried with Han Chinese, and have similar appearances. They are therefore less distinguishable from Han Chinese people, especially because a growing number of ethnic minorities are fluent at a native level in Mandarin Chinese. In addition, children often adopts "ethnic minority status" at birth if one of their parents is an ethnic minority, even though their ancestry is overwhelmingly Han Chinese. There is a growing number of Caucasians, South Asians, and Africans living in large Chinese cities. Although relatively few acquire Chinese citizenship, the number of immigrants belonging to different racial groups has markedly increased recently due to China's economic success[citation needed]. There are concentrated pockets of immigrants and foreign residents in some cities.

Anti-Japanese sentiment

Main article: Anti-Japanese sentiment in China

Anti-Japanese sentiment exists in China, most of it stemming from Japanese war crimes committed in the country during the Second Sino-Japanese War. History textbook revisionism in Japan and the denial or whitewashing of events such as the Nanking Massacre by right-wing Japanese groups has continued to inflame anti-Japanese feelings in China. It has been alleged that anti-Japanese sentiment in China is partially the result of political manipulation by the Communist Party of China.[17] According to a BBC report, anti-Japanese demonstrations are said to have received tacit approval from Chinese authorities, although the Chinese ambassador to Japan, Wang Yi, stated that the Chinese government does not condone such protests.[18]

Tensions with Uyghurs

A Uyghur proverb says "Protect religion, Kill the Han and destroy the Hui".(baohu zongjiao, sha Han mie Hui 保護宗教，殺漢滅回).[19][20]

Anti Hui poetry was written by Uyghurs.[21]

In Bayanday there is a brick factory,
it had been built by the Chinese.
If the Chinese are killed by soldiers,
the Tungans take over the plundering.

It was also alleged that a Uyghur would not enter the mosque of Hui people, and Hui and Han households were built closer together in the same area while Uyghurs would live farther away from the town.[21]

Sometimes Uyghurs regard Hui muslims from other provinces of China as fakes and refuse to eat food prepared by them.[22] Uyghurs view food prepared by Hui as unpure and will not buy meat from Hui, and protests by Uyghur teachers in 1989 at Turpan erupted because Uyghurs refused to eat food prepared by Hui.[23]

Children who are of mixed Han and Uyghur ethnicities are known as erzhuanzi (二转子) and Uyghurs call them piryotki.[23][24] They are shunned by Uyghurs at social gatherings and events.[25]

Some have accused the Chinese government as well as certain Han Chinese citizens of alleged discrimination against the Turkic Muslim Uyghur minority.[26][27] This was used as a partial explanation for the July 2009 Ürümqi riots which pitted residents of the city against each other along largely racial lines. An essay in the People's Daily described the events as "so-called racial conflict"[28] while several Western media sources labeled them as "race riots".[29][30][31]

In July 2009, a report in the The Atlantic highlighted a help wanted sign in the traditionally Uyghur city of Kashgar which explicitly stated that "this offer is for Han Chinese only."[26]

It has also been reported that unofficial Chinese policy is to deny passports to Uyghurs until they reach retirement age, especially if they intend to leave the country for the pilgrimage to Mecca.[26]

Tensions between Hui and Uyghurs arose because Qing and Republican Chinese authorities used Hui troops and officials to dominate the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.[32]

Hui population of Xinjiang increased by 520 percent from 1940–1982, average annual growth of 4.4 percent, the Uyghur population grew at 1.7 percent. This increase in Hui population led to tensions between the Hui Muslim and Uyghur Muslim populations. Some old Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which caused tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.[33]

Tibetan racism

In the frontier districts of Sichuan, and other ethnic Tibetan areas in China, many people of mixed Chinese-Tibetans were found. These half-Chinese, half-Tibetans were despised by pure Tibetans.[34]

Ethnic Tibetan Muslims (called Kache in Tibetan) have lived peacefully alongside Tibetan Buddhists for over a thousand years, because Buddhist Tibetans are prohibited by their religion from killing animals, yet require meat to survive in their mountain climate. However, Tibetans have severe problems with Chinese muslims (called Kyangsha in Tibetan).[35]

In history, Tibetans and Mongols refused to allow other ethnic groups such as Kazakhs to participate in the Kokonur ceremony in Qinghai, until the Muslim General Ma Bufang urged to stop the practice.[36]

Anti-African sentiment

Several clashes between African and Chinese students have occurred since the arrival of Africans to Chinese universities in the 1960s. Many African students come to China on a scholarship through the government to study at a university. The African students were often perceived as threatening and not punctual.[37] A well-documented incident in 1988 featured Chinese students rioting against African students studying in Nanjing.[38] In 2007, police anti-drug crackdowns in Beijing's Sanlitun district were reported to target people from Africa as suspected criminals, though police officials denied targeting any group.[39] Similar sentiment has emerged in Guangzhou, where a very large group of Africans have settled.

Other racism

Hatred of foreigners from high ranking Chinese Muslim officers stemmed from the arrogant way foreigners handled Chinese affairs, rather than for religious reasons, the same reason other non muslim Chinese hated foreigners. Promotion and wealth were other motives among Chinese Muslim military officers for anti foreignism.[40]

A Hui soldier of the 36th division called Sven Hedin a "foreign devil", which is a now antiquated derogatory Chinese term used to describe any foreigner.[41][42]

The Tungans (Chinese Muslims) were reported to be "strongly anti-Japanese".[43]

In the 1930s, a White Russian driver accompanying the Nazi agent Georg Vasel in Xinjiang was afraid to meet the Hui General Ma Zhongying, saying "You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." Tungan is another name for Chinese Muslim. Georg passed the Russian driver off as German to get through.[44]

One of the Chinese Muslim generals encountered by Peter Fleming was concerned that his visitor was a foreign "barbarian" and was only impressed when he found out his outlook was Chinese in nature.[45] The racist atmosphere made a Uighur feel inclined to grovel at the General's feet when asking for help. Other Uighur notables were forced to pay respect to the General, while his soldiers showed contempt.[46][47] Racial slurs were allegedly used by the Chinese Muslim troops against Uighurs.[48]

Hui General Ma Qi launched a racial war against the Tibetan Ngoloks, in 1928, inflicting a defeat upon them and seizing the Labrang Buddhist monastery.[citation needed] The Hui had a feud against the Ngoloks for a long time.[citation needed] Ma Qi's Muslim forces also machine-gunned Tibetan monks and ravaged the monastery several times, leaving thousands dead in bloody battles.[49][50]

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 20,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.[51][52]

The Empress Dowager Cixi was known for her xenophobia against non-Chinese peoples despite being a non-Han Chinese herself, also using the term foreign devils to describe them. Lao She, a Manchu writer, also called Europeans foreign devils.

Ethnic slurs

Against Cantonese people

  • 嶺南猴子 (lǐngnán hóuzi) - "monkey of the south", a slur for Cantonese people. This slur refer to the body size of Cantonese and skin tone because of their Negrito linkage.[53]
  • 粵猴 (yuèhóu) - "Yue(viet) monkey", a slur similar to 嶺南猴子, but more focus on Cantonese people's Yue origin.

Slurs against Cantonese people become more and more popular among northern Han Chinese after the Controversy over use of Cantonese by Guangzhou Television happened in July–August 2010.

Against Europeans and Westerners

Main article: Anti-Western sentiment in China
  • 洋鬼子 (yáng guǐzi) - "Western devil", a slur for White people or Caucasians popularized during the Opium War, when the British empire waged and won a war so that their merchants could legally sell opium.
  • 鬼佬 (guǐlǎo) - Borrowed from Cantonese "Gweilo", literally "ghost guy", a slur for White people.
  • 红毛 (Ang mo) - "Red Hair", a slur used by Hokkien(Min-nan) people in Taiwan and Singapore to primarily refer to Dutch colonists who settled in Taiwan and British colonists who settled in Singapore during the 17th century and early 19th century respectively.
  • Amigo - This term is sometimes heard among Chinese immigrants living in New York to describe people of Latin American descent, though whether it's meant to be derogatory is unclear.

The historian Frank Dikötter explains.

A common historical response to serious threats directed towards a symbolic universe is 'nihilation', or the conceptual liquidation of everything inconsistent with official doctrine. Foreigners were labelled 'barbarians' or 'devils' to be conceptually eliminated. The official rhetoric reduced the Westerner to a devil, a ghost, an evil and unreal goblin hovering on the border of humanity. Many texts of the first half of the nineteenth century referred to the English as 'foreign devils' (yangguizi), 'devil slaves' (guinu), 'barbarian devils' (fangui), 'island barbarians' (daoyi), 'blue-eyed barbarian slaves' (biyan yinu), or 'red-haired barbarians' (hongmaofan).[54]

Against Arabs

  • 阿人(ā rén) - a slur used in reference to Arabs, used by Chinese people in Europe, especially France. "阿人" is short for "阿拉伯人(ā lā bó rén)", which is a phonetic translation of "Arab". This abbreviation was used to make sure Arabs don't recognize the pronunciation when eavesdropping on conversations.
  • 阿鬼(ā guǐ) - similar to 阿人, meaning "Arabic devil".

Against Indigenous peoples

  • 番鬼 (Fan Guai) - a slur used to describe foreigners, where 番 (Fan) means "Tribal people". The Minnan and Chaozhou people would used 山番 (mountain tribal people) and 生番 (raw tribal people) to describe natives and aboriginals. It is also used by people of southern China to describe foreigners.

Against Japanese

  • 小日本 (xiǎo Rìběn) — Literally "little Japan"(ese). This term is so common that it has very little impact left (Google Search returns 21,000,000 results as of August 2007). The term can be used to refer to either Japan or individual Japanese. "小", or the word "little", is usually construed as "puny", "lowly" or "small country", but not "spunky".
  • 日本鬼子 (Rìběn guǐzi) — Literally "Japanese ghost". This is used mostly in the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when Japan invaded and occupied large areas of China. This is the title of a Japanese documentary on Japanese war crimes during WWII.
  • 倭 (Wō) — An ancient Chinese name for Japan, but it was also adopted by the Japanese, pronounced Wa. In current Chinese usage, Wō is usually intended to give a negative connotation (see Wōkòu below). Two commonly proposed etymologies for this word are "submissive; obedient" or "dwarf; short person".[55] In the 7th century, Japanese scribes replaced 倭 (Wō/Wa) with 和 (Hé/Wa) meaning "harmony."
  • 倭寇 (Wōkòu) — Originally referred to Japanese pirates and armed sea merchants who raided the Chinese coastline during the Ming Dynasty (see Wokou). The term was adopted during the Second Sino-Japanese War to refer to invading Japanese forces, (similarly to Germans being called Huns). The word is today sometimes used to refer to all Japanese people in negative contexts.
  • 自慰队 (zì wèi duì) - A pun on the homophone "自卫队" (zì wèi duì, literally "Self-Defence Forces", see Japan Self-Defense Forces), the definition of 慰 (wèi) used is "to comfort". This phrase is used to refer to Japanese (whose military force is known as "自卫队") being stereotypically hypersexual, as "自慰队" means "Self-comforting Forces", referring to masturbation.
  • 架佬 (Ga Lou)-A neutral term for Japanese used by Cantonese (especially Hong Kong Cantonese), because Japanese use a lot of "Ga" at the end of a sentence. 架妹 (Ga Mui) is used for female Japanese.

Against Koreans

  • 高丽棒子 (Gāolì bàng zǐ) - Derogatory term used against all ethnic Koreans. 高丽 (Traditional: 高麗) refers to Ancient Korea (Koryo), while 棒子 means "club" or "corncob", referring to the weapon used by the puppet Korean police during the Anti-Japanese War of China.
  • 二鬼子 (èr guǐ zǐ) - A disparaging designation of puppet armies and traitors during the Anti-Japanese War of China.[56][57] Japanese were known as "鬼子" (devil), and the 二鬼子 literally means "second devils". During World War II, some Koreans were involved in Imperial Japanese Army, and so 二鬼子 refers to hanjian and ethnic Koreans. The definition of 二鬼子 has changed throughout time[original research?], with modern slang usage entirely different from its original meaning during World War II and the subsequent Chinese civil war.[citation needed]

Against Africans and Blacks

  • 黑鬼 (hei guǐ) - "Black ghost"[58]
  • 老黑 (lao hei) - "Old black", although this can be used in a non-pejorative fashion similar to laowai - though recipients of the term 老外 are not unanimous that it is non-pejorative.

Against Indians

  • 阿差 (Ah Cha)-Ah Cha means "Good" in some Indian languages, is a derogatory Cantonese term used against Indians. During the 1950s-1970s, there were many Indians working in Hong Kong as laborers, or doormen, especially doormen for hotels.[citation needed]
  • 阿三 (A Sae) or 红头阿三 (Ghondeu Asae) - Originally a Shanghainese term used against South Asians. This term is now used in Mandarin as well.[59]

Against Russians

  • 毛子 (máo zi) - literally “body hair”, it is a derogatory term against Caucasian peoples. However, because most white people in contact with China were Russians before the 19th century, 毛子 became a derogatory term specifically against Russians.[citation needed]

Against Uyghurs

  • Ch'an-t'ou (纏頭; turban heads) (used during the Republican period)[48][60]
  • nao-tzu-chien-tan (脑子简单; simple-minded) (used during the Republican period)[48]

Against Mixed Races

  • erzhuanzi (二转子) refers to children who are mixed Uyghur and Han.[23][24] This term "Erh-hun-tze, was said by European explorers in the 19th century to describe a people who were descended from a mixture of Chinese, Taghliks, and Mongols living in the area from Ku-ch'eng-tze to Barköl in Xinjiang.[61]

Orthographic pejoratives

Some Chinese characters for non-Chinese peoples were covert ethnic slurs, which Paul K. Benedict called the "pejorativization of exonymized names."[62] Wa 倭, the oldest recorded Japanese name of Japan, is a well-known example. The original Chinese exonym for "Japan; Japanese" was Wo 倭 "dwarf barbarian", which Japanese scribes initially used for their autonym Wa 倭 "Japan", but later replaced with Wa 和 "harmony; peace".

Chinese characters typically combine a semantic element or radical and a phonetic element. For instance, the above Wo 倭 exonym has a wei 委 "bend" phonetic and the 亻 "human radical". James A. Matisoff noted how "The Chinese writing system provided unique opportunities for graphic pejoratives. The 'beast-radical' 犭used to appear in the characters for the names of lesser peoples (e.g., 猺 'Yao'), though now the 'person-radical' 亻has been substituted (傜)."[63] Namely, the Chinese character exonym for the Yao people changed from yao 猺 "jackal; Yao people", to yao 傜 "Yao people", to yao 瑤 "precious jade; green jasper; Yao people" (with the "jade radical").[64]

In addition to this Yao 猺 exonym, language reforms in the People's Republic of China have changed characters for other minority peoples from the derogatory 犭 "dog/beast radical" to the neutral 亻"human/person radical".

John DeFrancis described how the PRC removed the "ethnic slur" Zhuang 獞 for the Zhuang people. Their first Chinese exonym was Zhuang 獞, with the "dog radical" and a tong 童 phonetic, which was also read tong 獞 "a dog name". In 1949, after the Chinese civil war, the offensive exonym was officially replaced by Zhuang 僮, with the "human radical" and same phonetic, which was commonly read tong 僮 "child; boy servant". In 1965, during the standardization of simplified Chinese characters, the Zhuang exonym was changed to a completely different character Zhuang 壮 "strong; robust".[65]

The Yi people or Lolo, whose current Chinese exonym is yi 彝 "sacrificial wine vessel; Yi peoples", used to be condescendingly called the Luoluo 猓猓.[66] This character guo 猓 originally named the guoran 猓然 or 果然 "Proboscis monkey", and was later read luo for the Luoluo. That exonym was first changed to 倮倮, with the "human radical" and same phonetic, but 倮 was a graphic variant character for luo 裸 "naked" with the "clothing radical". Luoluo was later changed to 羅羅 or 罗罗, with an unrelated homophone luo 羅 or 罗 "bird net; gauze". Benedict noted that, "a leading Chinese linguist has remarked that the name 'Lolo' is offensive only when written with the 'dog' radical.[67] Guoluo 猓玀 or 猓猡 was an alternate Chinese slur for the Lolo/Yi people, with a character used in zhuluo 猪玀 "pig; swine".

This simian luo 猓 character was further used in an uncomplimentary exonym for the Lahu people. Luohei 猓黑, "with the pejorative character 黑 'black' as the second element"[68] was replaced by Lahu 拉祜, using the graphs for la 拉 "pull; drag" and hu 祜 "favor or protection from heaven".

Some additional "dog/beast radical" ethnophaulisms were Gelao 犵狫 or 仡佬 "Gelao people", Xunyu 獯鬻 "Xunyu people", and Xianyun 獫狁 "Xianyun people" (with 獫 "long-snouted dog"). Anciently, there were the Quanrong 犬戎 "dog barbarians".

A few denigrating exonyms have graphic significs besides the "dog/beast radical". The "sheep radical" 羊 is seen in Qiang 羌 "shepherd; Qiang people" and Jie 羯 "castrated; Jie people"; the "insect/reptile radical" 虫 is in both Man 蠻 "southern barbarians" and Min 閩 "southeastern barbarians" (see Fujian#History); and the "cat/beast radical" 豸 is seen in Mo 貊 "leopard; northeastern barbarians" (modern Huimo 濊貊 "Yemaek people"). Few ethnonymic characters have the neutral "people/human radical", for instance, Bo 僰 "Bo people."

See also

References

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  2. ^ Book of Han, with commentary by Yan Shigu Original text:　烏孫於西域諸戎其形最異。今之胡人青眼、赤須，狀類彌猴者，本其種也。
  3. ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2009). China between empires: the northern and southern dynasties. Harvard University Press. p. 76. ISBN 0674026055. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
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  6. ^ Johan Elverskog (2010). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 340. ISBN 0812242378. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  7. ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 234. ISBN 0674594975. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  8. ^ Zhang, Xinjiang Fengbao Qishinian [Xinjiang in Tumult for Seventy Years], 3393-4.
  9. ^ The Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan and the Formation of Modern Uyghur Identity in Xinjiang, by JOY R. LEE [1]
  10. ^ UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO RESEOLVE POLITICAL PROBLEMS IN SINKIANG; EXTENT OF SOVIET AID AND ENCOURAGEMENT TO REBEL GROUPS IN SINKIANG; BORDER INCIDENT AT PEITASHAN
  11. ^ Paul Kocot Nietupski (1999). Labrang: a Tibetan Buddhist monastery at the crossroads of four civilizations. Snow Lion Publications. p. 82. ISBN 1559390905. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
  12. ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 2010-11-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 0520054628. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  14. ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2009). China's cosmopolitan empire: the Tang dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 170. ISBN 067403306X. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
  15. ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 0521497817. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
  16. ^ "China". CIA. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
  17. ^ Shirk, Susan (2007-04-05). "China: Fragile Superpower: How China's Internal Politics Could Derail its Peaceful Rise". Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  18. ^ "China's anti-Japan rallies spread". BBC News. 2005-04-10.
  19. ^ .The Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan and the Formation of Modern Uyghur Identity in Xinjiang, by JOY R. LEE [2]
  20. ^ Robyn R. Iredale, Naran Bilik, Fei Guo (2003). China's minorities on the move: selected case studies. M.E. Sharpe. p. 170. ISBN 076561023X. Retrieved 2010-07-30. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. p. 75. ISBN 9004166750. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  22. ^ Yangbin Chen (2008). Muslim Uyghur students in a Chinese boarding school: social recapitalization as a response to ethnic integration. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 130. ISBN 073912112X. Retrieved 2010-07-30. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  23. ^ a b c David Westerlund, Ingvar Svanberg (1999). Islam outside the Arab world. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 204. ISBN 0312226918. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
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  25. ^ Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson, Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road. Columbia University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0231107862. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
  26. ^ a b c "No Uighurs Need Apply". The Atlantic. 10 Jul 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2009. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  27. ^ "Uighurs blame 'ethnic hatred'". Al Jazeera. July 7, 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  28. ^ Global Times (10 July 2009). "People's Daily criticizes double standards in Western media attitudes to 7.5 incident". China News Wrap. original article in Chinese
  29. ^ "Race Riots Continue in China's Far West". Time magazine. 2009-07-07. Retrieved 13 July 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  30. ^ "Deadly race riots put spotlight on China". The San Francisco Chronicle. July 8, 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  31. ^ "Three killed in race riots in western China". The Irish Times. July 6, 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  32. ^ S. Frederick Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 311. ISBN 0765613182. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  33. ^ S. Frederick Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 113. ISBN 0765613182. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  34. ^ Friedrich Ratzel (1898). The history of mankind, Volume 3. Macmillan and co., ltd. p. 355. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
  35. ^ Shail Mayaram (2009). The other global city. Taylor & Francis US. p. 76. ISBN 0415991943. Retrieved 2010-07-30.
  36. ^ Uradyn Erden Bulag (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 0742511448. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  37. ^ New York Times
  38. ^ New York Times article by Nicholas Kristof
  39. ^ Beijing Newspeak :: Sanlitun saga update: anti-drug operation uncovers no drugs
  40. ^ James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie, Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. Retrieved 2010-11-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ History of the expedition in Asia, 1927-1935, Part 3. Göteborg, Elanders boktryckeri aktiebolag. 1945. p. 78. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ The flight of "Big Horse": the trail of war in Central Asia. E. P. Dutton and co., inc. 1936. p. 92. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 130. ISBN 9780521255141. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  44. ^ Georg Vasel, Gerald Griffin (1937). My Russian jailers in China. Hurst & Blackett. p. 143. Retrieved 2010-06-28. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  45. ^ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 308. ISBN 0810160714. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  46. ^ Peter Fleming (1999). News from Tartary: A Journey from Peking to Kashmir. Evanston Illinois: Northwestern University Press. p. 308. ISBN 0810160714. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  47. ^ Christian Tyler (2004). Wild West China: the taming of Xinjiang. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0813535336. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  48. ^ a b c Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 307. ISBN 0521255147. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  49. ^ James Tyson, Ann Tyson (1995). Chinese awakenings: life stories from the unofficial China. Westview Press. p. 123. ISBN 0813324734. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  50. ^ Paul Kocot Nietupski (1999). Labrang: a Tibetan Buddhist monastery at the crossroads of four civilizations. Snow Lion Publications. p. 90. ISBN 1559390905. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
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  52. ^ American Academy of Political and Social Science (1951). Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volumes 276-278. American Academy of Political and Social Science. p. 152. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  53. ^ Xue, Fuzhong (2008). European Journal of Human Genetics. 16: 705–717 http://www.picb.ac.cn/picb-dynamic/admin/pic/A%20spatial%20analysis%20of%20genetic%20structure%20of%20human.pdf. Retrieved 1 May 2011. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ Dikötter, Frank (1992). The Discourse of Race in Modern China. Stanford University Press, p. 36.
  55. ^ Carr, Michael (1992). "Wa 倭 Wa 和 Lexicography." International Journal of Lexicography 5.1, p. 9.
  56. ^ Comprehensive Chinese-English Dictionary
  57. ^ mdbg Chinese English Dictionary
  58. ^ Hooi, Alexis (2009-07-31). "The disunited colors of prejudice". China Daily. Retrieved 2009-11-24. Even now, some Guangzhou residents might admit using the generic and derogatory term "hei gui" or "ghost" to refer to Africans in the community.
  59. ^ "上海滩的"红头阿三"". Retrieved 2010-08-01.
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  63. ^ Matisoff, James A. (1986). "The languages and dialects of Tibeto-Burman: an alphabetic/genetic listing, with some prefatory remarks on ethnonymic and glossonymic complications." In John McCoy and Timothy Light, eds., Contributions to Sino-Tibetan Studies, presented to Nicholas C. Bodman, p 6. E.J. Brill.
  64. ^ Mathews, Robert Henry (1931). Chinese- English Dictionary, no. 7287, China Inland Mission, records traditional Chinese prejudices, "the books describe them as being very wild; they are said to have a short tail; and the skin on the soles of their feet is spoken of as being more than one inch in thickness".
  65. ^ Defrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy, p. 117. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-0866-5.
  66. ^ Ramsey, Robert S. (1987). The Languages of China, p. 160. Princeton University Press.
  67. ^ Benedict, (1987), p. 188.
  68. ^ Matisoff (1986), 8.

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