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{{Infobox Christian leader |
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| name = Robert of Jumièges |
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| title = [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] |
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| image = Abbaye de Jumièges.jpg |
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| imagesize = 250px |
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| alt = Roofless stone ruins on a grass lawn. |
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| caption = Ruins of the Abbey of Jumièges |
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| appointed =1051 |
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| ended = September 1052 |
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| predecessor = [[Edsige]] |
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| successor = [[Stigand]] |
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| other_post = [[Abbot of Jumièges Abbey]]<br>[[Bishop of London]] |
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| consecration =1044444 |
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| death_date = between 1052 and 1055 |
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| death_place= Jumièges |
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}} |
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'''Robert of Jumièges''' (sometimes '''Robert Chambert''' or '''Robert Champart'''; died between 1052 and 1055) was the first [[Normans|Norman]] [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref name="Barlow50">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 50</ref> He had previously served as [[prior]] of the [[Church of St. Ouen, Rouen|Abbey of St Ouen]] at [[Rouen]] in Normandy, before becoming [[abbot]] of [[Jumièges Abbey]], near Rouen, in 1037. He was a good friend and advisor to the king of [[England]], [[Edward the Confessor]], who appointed him [[Bishop of London]] in 1044, and then archbishop in 1051. Robert's time as archbishop lasted only about eighteen months. He had already come into conflict with the powerful Earl [[Godwin of Wessex]], and while archbishop made attempts to recover lands lost to Godwin and his family. He also refused to consecrate [[Spearhafoc]], Edward's choice to succeed Robert as Bishop of London. The rift between Robert and Godwin culminated in Robert's deposition and exile in 1052. |
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A Norman medieval chronicler{{efn|This refers to [[William of Jumièges]] who does not appear to be a relation to Robert. Both gained the surname by being monks at Jumièges.<ref name="DNB" /><ref>van Houts, Elizabeth "William of Jumièges" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref>}} claimed that Robert travelled to Normandy in 1051 or 1052 and told Duke [[William I of England|William of Normandy]], the future William the Conqueror, that Edward wished for him to become his heir. The exact timing of Robert's trip, and whether he actually made it, have been the subject of debate among historians. The archbishop died in exile at Jumièges sometime between 1052 and 1055. Robert commissioned significant building work at Jumièges and was probably involved in the first Romanesque building in England, the church built in Westminster for Edward the Confessor, now known as [[Westminster Abbey]]. Robert's treatment by the English was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England. |
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==Background and life in Normandy== |
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Robert was prior of the monastery of St Ouen at Rouen before he became abbot of the important Jumièges Abbey<ref name="Douglas167">Douglas ''William the Conqueror'' p. 167–170</ref><ref name="Church44">Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 44</ref> in 1037.<ref name="DNB" /> Jumièges had been refounded under [[William I, Duke of Normandy|William Longsword]], [[Duke of Normandy]].<ref name="Crouch30">Crouch ''Normandy Before 1066'' p. 30</ref><ref name="Normans12">Crouch ''Normans'' p. 12</ref> around 940,<ref name="Crouch58">Crouch ''Normandy Before 1066'' p. 58</ref> Its ties with the ducal family were close and it played a role in ducal government and church reform.<ref name="Crouch193">Crouch ''Normandy Before 1066'' pp. 193–194</ref> Robert's alternate surname "Champart" or "Chambert" probably derived from [[champart]], a term for the part of a crop paid as rent to a landlord. Besides evidence that the preceding abbot at Jumièges was a relative, Robert's origin and family background are otherwise unknown. While abbot, Robert began construction of the abbey church, in the new [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style.<ref name="DNB">Cowdrey "Robert of Jumièges" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> |
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Robert became friendly with Edward the Confessor, a claimant to the English throne, while Edward was living in exile in Normandy, probably in the 1030s.<ref name="Barlow50" /> Edward was the son of [[Æthelred the Unready]], king of England, who had been replaced by [[Cnut the Great]] in 1016. Cnut subsequently married Æthelred's widow [[Emma of Normandy]], Edward's mother, and had a son with her, [[Harthacanute]]. For their own safety, Edward and his brother [[Alfred Aetheling|Alfred]] were sent to Emma's relatives in Normandy.<ref name="Hindley306">Hindley ''Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons'' pp. 306–310</ref>{{efn|Both Alfred and Edward returned to England in 1036, but afterwards Alfred was murdered, apparently on Harold's orders.<ref>Hindley ''Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons'' pp. 316–317</ref>}} After Cnut's death in 1035, [[Harold Harefoot]], his elder son by his first wife, acceded to the English throne. Following Harald's death in 1040, Harthacanute succeeded him for a short time, but as neither Harald nor Harthacanute left offspring, the throne was offered to Edward on Harthacanute's death in 1042.<ref name="Hindley315">Hindley ''Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons'' pp. 315–318</ref> There is some evidence that Edward spent some of his time in exile around Jumièges, as after becoming king he gave gifts to the abbey.<ref name="Normans78">Crouch ''Normans'' p. 78</ref> |
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==Bishop and Archbishop== |
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[[Image:Interieur ruines jumieges.jpg|left|thumb|View of the interior ruins of Jumièges, looking west down the nave.|alt=Interior shot of roofless ruined building, shot upwards towards the missing roof. The walls are in three layers, the bottom layer is made up of an arched colonnade, the second is pierced with small arched openings, and the third is mostly solid.]] |
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Robert accompanied Edward the Confessor on Edward's recall to England in 1042<ref name="Barlow50" /> to become king following Harthacanute's death.<ref name="DNB" /> It was due to Edward that in August 1044 Robert was appointed Bishop of London,<ref name="Handbook230">Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronology'' p. 230</ref> one of the first episcopal vacancies which occurred in Edward's reign.<ref name="Church46">Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' pp. 46–50</ref> Robert remained close to the king and was the leader of the party opposed to Earl Godwin, Earl of Wessex.<ref name="DNB" /> Godwin, for his part, was attempting to expand the influence of his family, which had already acquired much land. His daughter was Edward's queen, and two of his sons were elevated to earldoms.<ref name="Mason51">Mason ''House of Godwine'' pp. 51–53</ref> The ''[[Vita Ædwardi Regis|Life of Saint Edward]]'', a [[Hagiography|hagiographical]] work on King Edward's life, claimed that Robert "was always the most powerful confidential adviser of the king".<ref name="VE">Quoted in Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 50</ref> Robert seems to have favoured closer relations with Normandy, and its duke.<ref name="Church46" /> Edward himself had grown up in the duchy, and spent 25 years in exile there before his return to England. He brought many Normans with him to England, and seems to have spent much time in their company.<ref name="Potts33">Potts "Normandy" ''Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'' p. 33</ref> |
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When Archbishop Edsige of Canterbury died in October 1050,<ref name="Higham128">Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' pp. 128–129</ref> the post remained vacant for five months.<ref name="DNB" /> The [[cathedral chapter]] elected Æthelric, a kinsman of Godwin and a monk at Canterbury,<ref name="Barlow104">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 104</ref><ref name="Walker27">Walker ''Harold'' p. 27</ref> but were over-ruled when Edward appointed Robert Archbishop of Canterbury the following year.<ref name="DNB" /><ref name="Handbook214">Fryde, et al. ''Handbook of British Chronlogy'' p. 214</ref> Godwin was attempting to exercise his power of patronage over the archbishopric, but the king's appointment signalled that the king was willing to contest with the earl over the traditional royal rights at Canterbury.<ref name=Heath16/> Although the monks of Canterbury opposed it, the king's appointment stood.<ref name="Church209">Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 209</ref> Robert went to Rome to receive his [[pallium]] and returned to England<ref name="Barlow106">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 106</ref> where he was ceremonially enthroned at Canterbury on 29 June 1051.<ref name="DNB" /> Some Norman chroniclers state that he visited Normandy on this trip and informed Duke William, the future William the Conqueror, that he was the childless King Edward's heir.<ref name="Church46" /> According to these chroniclers, the decision to make William the heir had been decided at the same lenten royal council in 1051 that had declared Robert archbishop.<ref name="DNB" /> |
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After returning from Rome, Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, the [[Abingdon Abbey|Abbot of Abingdon]] and the king's goldsmith,<ref name="Ruling52">Huscroft ''Ruling England'' p. 52</ref> as his successor to the bishopric of London, claiming that Pope [[Pope Leo IX|Leo IX]] had forbidden the consecration. Almost certainly the grounds were simony,<ref name="Walker29" /> the purchase of ecclesiastical office,<ref>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases'' p. 260</ref> as Leo had recently issued proclamations against the practice. In refusing to consecrate Spearhafoc, Robert may have been following his own interests against the wishes of both the king and Godwin, as he had his own candidate, a Norman, in mind.<ref name="Walker29">Walker ''Harold'' p. 29–30</ref> In the end Robert's favoured candidate, [[William the Norman]], was consecrated instead of Spearhafoc.<ref name="DNB" /><ref name="Ruling52" /> Robert also discovered that some lands belonging to Canterbury had fallen into Godwin's hands, but his efforts to recover them through the shire courts were unsuccessful.<ref name="Walker29" /> Canterbury had lost control of some revenues from the shire of Kent to Godwin during Edsige's tenure as archbishop, which Robert unsuccessfully attempted to reclaim.<ref name="Rex42">Rex ''Harold II'' pp. 42–43</ref> These disputes over the estates and revenues of the archbishopric contributed to the friction between Robert and Godwin,<ref name="Rex42" /><ref name="Campbell22">Campbell "Pre-Conquest Norman Occupation of England" ''Speculum'' p. 22</ref> which had begun with Robert's election. Robert's election had disrupted Godwin's patronage powers in Canterbury, and now Robert's efforts to recover lands Godwin had seized from Canterbury challenged the earl's economic rights.<ref name=Heath16>Bates "Land Pleas of William I's Reign" ''Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research'' p. 16</ref> Events came to a head at a council held at [[Gloucester]] in September 1051, when Robert accused Earl Godwin of plotting to kill King Edward.<ref name="Barlow111">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 111</ref>{{efn|Godwin was especially vulnerable to this charge, as he had been involved in the death of Edward's brother Alfred during Harthacanute's reign.<ref name="Godwins42">Barlow ''Godwins'' p. 42</ref>}} Godwin and his family were exiled; afterwards Robert claimed the office of sheriff of [[Kent]], probably on the strength of [[Eadsige]], his predecessor as Archbishop, having held the office.<ref name="Barlow115">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 115</ref> |
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Although Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, there is little evidence that he was interested in the growing movement towards Church reform being promulgated by the papacy.<ref name="Rex46">Rex ''Harold II'' p. 46</ref> Pope Leo IX was beginning a reform movement later known as the [[Gregorian Reform]], initially focused on improving the clergy and prohibiting simony. In 1049 Leo IX declared that he would take more interest in English church matters and would investigate episcopal candidates more strictly before confirming them. It may have been partly to appease Leo that Edward appointed Robert instead of Æthelric, hoping to signal to the papacy that the English crown was not totally opposed to the growing reform movement.<ref name="Stafford89">Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' pp. 89–92</ref> It was against this backdrop that Robert refused to consecrate Spearhafoc, although there is no other evidence that Robert embraced the reform position, and his claim that the pope forbade the consecration may have had more to do with finding an easy excuse than any true desire for reform.<ref name="Rex46" /> There are also some indications that Spearhafoc was allied to Godwin, and his appointment was meant as a quid pro quo for the non-appointment of Æthelric.<ref name="Higham128" /><ref name="John177">John ''Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 177</ref> If true, Robert's refusal to consecrate Spearhafoc would have contributed to the growing rift between the archbishop and the earl.<ref name="Higham128" /> |
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==Royal advisor== |
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[[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene44 William Odo Robert.jpg| upright |300px|right|thumb|Image of [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]|alt=Tapestry image of a seated man in robes holding a sword with WILLELM written above his head flanked by two seated men in chainmail.]] |
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The ''Life of Saint Edward'' claims that while Godwin was in exile Robert tried to persuade King Edward to divorce [[Edith of Wessex|Edith]], Godwin's daughter, but Edward refused and instead she was sent to a [[Abbey|nunnery]].<ref name="Barlow115" /> However, the ''Life'' is a hagiography, written soon after Edward's death to show Edward as a saint. Thus it stresses that Edward voluntarily remained [[Celibacy|celibate]], something unlikely to have been true and not corroborated by any other source. Modern historians have felt it more likely that Edward, at Robert's urging, wished to divorce Edith and remarry in order to have children to succeed him on the English throne,<ref name="Walker35">Walker ''Harold'' p. 35–36</ref> although it is possible that he merely wished to be rid of her, without necessarily wanting a divorce.<ref name="DNB" /> |
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During Godwin's exile, Robert is said to have been sent by the king on an errand to Duke [[William I of England|William of Normandy]].<ref name="Barlow107">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 107</ref> The reason for the embassy is uncertain. [[William of Jumièges]] says that Robert went to tell Duke William that Edward wished William to be his heir. The medieval writer [[William of Poitiers]] gives the same reason, but also adds that Robert took with him as hostages Godwin's son [[Wulfnoth Godwinson|Wulfnoth]] and grandson [[Hakon Sweynson|Hakon]] (son of [[Sweyn Godwinson|Sweyn]]). The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' is silent on the visit however, so it is uncertain whether Robert visited Normandy or not, or why he did so.<ref name="Walker37">Walker ''Harold'' p. 37–38</ref> The entire history of the various missions which Robert is alleged to have made is confused, and complicated by propaganda claims made by Norman chroniclers after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] in 1066,<ref name="Stafford89" /><ref name="Bates73">Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 73</ref>{{efn|The whole issue is discussed in John "Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession" ''English Historical Review'', and Oleson "Edward the Confessor's Promise of the Throne" ''English Historical Review'', listed in the references, where the various theories are set forth in great detail.}} leaving it unclear if Robert visited Normandy on his way to receive his pallium or after Godwin was in exile, or if he went twice or not at all.<ref name="Stafford89" /><ref name="John">John "Edward the Confessor" ''English Historical Review''</ref><ref name="Oleson">Oleson "Edward the Confessor" ''English Historical Review''</ref> |
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==Outlawing, death, and legacy== |
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After Godwin left England, he went to [[Flanders]], and gathered a fleet and mercenaries to force the king to allow his return. In the summer of 1052, Godwin returned to England and was met by his sons, who had invaded from Ireland. By September, they were advancing on London, where negotiations between the king and the earl were conducted with the help of [[Stigand]], the [[Bishop of Winchester]].<ref name="Mason69">Mason ''House of Godwine'' pp. 69–75</ref> When it became apparent that Godwin would be returning, Robert quickly left England<ref name="Barlow124">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 124</ref> with Bishop [[Ulfus Normanus|Ulf of Dorcester]] and Bishop William of London, probably once again taking Wulfnoth and Hakon with him as hostages, whether with the permission of King Edward or not.<ref name="Walker47">Walker ''Harold'' p. 47</ref>{{efn|Ulf never returned to England, but William was allowed to return eventually.<ref name="Rex12">Rex ''Harold II'' p. 12</ref>}} Robert was declared an outlaw and deposed from his archbishopric on 14 September 1052 at a royal council, mainly because the returning Godwin felt that Robert, along with a number of other Normans, had been the driving force behind his exile.<ref name="Handbook214" /><ref name="Barlow124" />{{efn|Edith, after her father's restoration to power, was returned to court and reinstated as queen.<ref name="Mason75">Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 75</ref>}} Robert journeyed to Rome to complain to the pope about his own exile,<ref name="Barlow126">Barlow ''Edward the Confessor'' p. 126</ref> where Leo IX and successive popes condemned Stigand,<ref name="Walker50">Walker ''Harold'' p. 50–51</ref> whom Edward had appointed to Canterbury.<ref name="Stafford94">Stafford ''Unification and Conquest'' p. 94</ref> Robert's personal property was divided between Earl Godwin, Harold Godwinson, and the queen, who had returned to court.<ref name="ASE568">Stenton ''Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 568</ref> |
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Robert died at Jumièges,<ref name="Higham137">Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 137</ref> but the date of his death is unclear. Various dates are given, with Ian Walker, the biographer of Harold arguing for between 1053 and 1055,<ref name="Walker37" /> but H. E. J. Cowdrey, who wrote Robert's ''[[Dictionary of National Biography#Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' entry, says on 26 May in either 1052 or 1055.<ref name="DNB" />{{efn|Note that May 1052 is probably wrong, as it is prior to the September 1052 date when, according to most historians, Robert fled England.<ref name="DNB" /><ref name="Walker37" /><ref name="Loyn59" />}} [[H. R. Loyn]], another modern historian, argues that it is likely that he died in 1053.<ref name="Loyn59">Loyn ''English Church'' p. 59</ref> |
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Robert's treatment was used by William the Conqueror as one of the justifications for his invasion of England, the other being that Edward had named William his heir. Ian Walker, author of the most recent scholarly biography of [[Harold Godwinson]], suggests that it was Robert, while in exile after the return of Godwin, who testified that King Edward had nominated Duke William to be Edward's heir.<ref name="Walker50" /> However, this view is contradicted by David Douglas, a historian and biographer of William the Conqueror, who believes that Robert merely relayed Edward's decision, probably while Robert was on his way to Rome to receive his pallium.<ref name="Douglas167" /> Several medieval chroniclers, including the author of the ''Life of Saint Edward'', felt that the blame for Edward and Godwin's conflict in 1051–1052 lay squarely with Robert;<ref name="Emma">Stafford ''Queen Emma and Queen Edith'' p. 11</ref> modern historians tend to see Robert as an ambitious man, with little political skill.<ref name="DNB" /> |
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==Artistic patronage== |
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In notable contrast to his successor Stigand, Robert does not figure among the important benefactors to English churches,<ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' mentions many of these, but not Robert.</ref> but we know of some transfers to Jumièges of important English church treasures, the first trickle of what was to become a flood of treasure taken to Normandy after the Conquest.<ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 216–222 and ''passim''</ref> These included the relic of the head of [[Saint Valentine]] only recently given to the monks of [[Winchester Cathedral]] by Emma of Normandy. Though the Winchester head remained in place, another one appeared at Jumièges; he "must have clandestinely removed the head, or at least the greater part of it, and left his monks to venerate the empty or nearly empty ''capsa''".<ref>Kelly ''Chaucer'' p. 54</ref> Two of the four most important surviving late [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[illuminated manuscript]]s went the same way,{{efn|The other two being the [[Benedictional of St Aethelwold]] and the [[Harley Psalter]], according to D.H. Turner.<ref name="Turner-Illuminated">Turner "Illuminated Manuscripts" ''Golden Age'' p. 69</ref>}} thus probably preventing their destruction in a series of fires that devastated the major English libraries.<ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 224–225</ref> One is the so-called ''Missal of Robert of Jumièges'', actually a [[sacramentary]] with thirteen surviving full-page miniatures, which bears an inscription apparently in Robert's own hand recording its donation to Jumièges when he was Bishop of London,<ref name="Turner-Illuminated"/> and the other the so-called ''Benedictional of Archbishop Robert'', actually a [[Roman Pontifical|pontifical]] with three remaining full-page miniatures and other decoration (respectively Rouen, Bibliothèque Municipale, Manuscripts Y.6 and Y.7). The latter may well have been commissioned by Æthelgar, Robert's predecessor as Archbishop in 988–90, although it is possible the "Archbishop Robert" of the traditional name is Emma's brother [[Robert II (Archbishop of Rouen)|Robert, Archbishop of Rouen]] from 990 to 1037.<ref name="Turner60">Turner "Illuminated Manuscripts" ''Golden Age'' p. 60</ref><ref name="Lapidge482">Gameson "Winchester School" ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia'' p. 482</ref>{{efn|The inscription naming it as a gift of "Archbishop Robert" dates from the 17th century and is not clear which Archbishop Robert is being referred to.<ref name="Lawrence83">Lawrence "Anglo-Norman Book Production" ''England and Normandy'' p. 83</ref>}} These masterpieces of the Winchester style were the most elaborately decorated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts known to have reached Normandy, either before or after the Conquest, and influenced the much less-developed local style, though this remained very largely restricted to initials.<ref>Dodwell ''Anglo-Saxon Art'' pp. 225–226</ref> |
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Before he came to England, Robert had begun the construction of a new abbey church at Jumièges, in the new Romanesque style which was then becoming popular,<ref name="Mason83" /> and introduced to Normandy the [[Westwork|two-towered western facade]] from the [[Rhineland]]. On his return to Normandy he continued to build there,<ref>Gem "Origins" ''Westminster Abbey'' p. 15</ref> and the abbey church was not finished until 1067.<ref name="Higham148">Higham ''Death of Anglo-Saxon England'' p. 148</ref> Although the choir has been torn down, the towers, [[nave]] and [[transept]]s have survived.<ref name="Plant219">Plant "Ecclesiastical Architecture" ''Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'' pp. 219–222</ref> Robert probably influenced Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of the church at Westminster Abbey, the first known building in the Romanesque style in England, which is so described by [[William of Malmesbury]].<ref name="Mason83">Mason ''House of Godwine'' p. 83</ref><ref name="Church51">Barlow ''English Church 1000–1066'' p. 51 footnote 2</ref> Edward's work began in about 1050 and was completed just before his death in 1065. The recorded name of one of the senior masons, "Teinfrith the churchwright" indicates foreign origins, and Robert may have arranged for Norman masons to be brought over, though other names are English.<ref>Gem "Origins" ''Westminster Cathedral'' pp. 13–15</ref> It is possible that Westminster influenced the building at Jumièges, as the arcade there closely resembles Westminster's arcade, both of them in a style that never became common in Normandy.<ref name="Breese212">Breese "Early Normandy and the Emergence of Norman Romanesque Architecture" ''Journal of Medieval History'' p. 212</ref> The Early Romanesque style of both was to be superseded after the Conquest by the Anglo-Norman High Romanesque style pioneered in [[Canterbury Cathedral]] and [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes|St. Etienne, Caen]] by [[Lanfranc]].<ref>Gem "English Romanesque Architecture" ''English Romanesque Art'' p. 26</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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{{notelist|60em}} |
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==Citations== |
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{{Reflist|40em}} |
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==References== |
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{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}} |
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* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian) |title=Edward the Confessor |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA |year=1970 |isbn=0-520-01671-8 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian) |title=The English Church 1000–1066: A History of the Later Anglo-Saxon Church |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=0-582-49049-9 |edition=Second }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Barlow, Frank |authorlink=Frank Barlow (historian)|title=The Godwins: The Rise and Fall of a Noble Dynasty |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-582-78440-9}} |
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* {{cite journal |author=Bates, David |authorlink=David Bates (historian) |title=The Land Pleas of William I's Reign: Penenden Heath Revisited |journal =Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research |volume=LI |issue=123 |date=May 1978 |pages=1–19 |doi= 10.1111/j.1468-2281.1978.tb01962.x}} |
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* {{cite book |author=Bates, David |authorlink=David Bates (historian) |title=William the Conqueror |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2001 |isbn=0-7524-1980-3 }} |
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* {{cite journal |author=Breese, Lauren Wood |title=Early Normandy and the Emergence of Norman Romanesque Architecture |journal=[[Journal of Medieval History]] |year=1988 |volume=14|pages=203–216 |doi=10.1016/0304-4181(88)90003-6 |issue=3}} |
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* {{cite journal |author=Campbell, Miles W. |title=A Pre-Conquest Norman Occupation of England |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]]|volume=46|issue=1|date=January 1971|pages=21–31 |doi=10.2307/2855086|jstor= 2855086 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Coredon, Christopher |title= A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases |year= 2007 |edition= Reprint |publisher=D. S. Brewer |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=978-1-84384-138-8 }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia | author=Cowdrey, H. E. J. |title= Robert of Jumièges (d. 1052/1055) |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23717 |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004|accessdate= 10 November 2007 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/23717 |format= {{ODNBsub}} }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Crouch, David |authorlink= David Crouch (historian) |title=Normandy Before 1066 |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=1982 |isbn=0-582-48492-8 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Crouch, David |authorlink= David Crouch (historian) |title=The Normans: The History of a Dynasty |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2007 |isbn=1-85285-595-9 }} |
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* {{cite book|author=Dodwell, C.R |title=Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective|year= 1982 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY | isbn= 0-7190-0926-X }} |
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* {{cite book |author= Douglas, David C. |authorlink= David C. Douglas |title= William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England |year=1964 |publisher= University of California Press |location= Berkeley, CA |oclc= 399137 }} |
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* {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|edition=Third Edition, revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gameson, Richard |editor1=[[Michael Lapidge|Lapidge, Michael]] |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=[[Simon Keynes|Keynes, Simon]] |editor4=Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title=Winchester School|year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 |pages=482–484 }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia| author=Gem, Richard |title= English Romanesque Architecture |editor= Zarnecki, George|encyclopedia= English Romanesque Art, 1066–1200|year= 1984 |publisher= Weidenfeld and Nicolson |location=London | oclc= 12480908|display-editors=etal}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia| author=Gem, Richard |title= The Origins of the Abbey |editor= Wilson, Christopher|encyclopedia= Westminster Abbey|year= 1986 |publisher= Bell and Hyman |location=London |oclc= 13125790|display-editors=etal}} |
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* {{cite book |author=Higham, Nick |title=The Death of Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Sutton |location=Stroud, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-7509-2469-1 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Hill, Paul |title=The Road to Hastings: The Politics of Power in Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=0-7524-3308-3 }} |
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* {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Huscroft, Richard |title=Ruling England 1042–1217 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=0-582-84882-2 }} |
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* {{cite journal |author=John, Eric |title=Edward the Confessor and the Norman Succession |date=April 1979 |journal= [[The English Historical Review]]|volume=96 |issue=371 |pages=241–267 |doi=10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXI.241 |jstor= 566846 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=John, Eric |title=Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-7190-5053-7 }} |
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* {{cite book| author=Kelly, Henry Ansgar |title=Chaucer and the Cult of Saint Valentine |year=1986|publisher= Brill|location= Leiden|isbn= 90-04-07849-5 }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lawrence, Anne |title=Anglo-Norman Book Production |encyclopedia=England and Normandy in the Middle Ages |editor1=[[David Bates (historian)|Bates, David]] |editor2=[[Anne Curry|Curry, Anne]] |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |pages=80–93|isbn=1-85285-083-3|year=1994 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink= H. R. Loyn|title=The English Church, 940–1154 |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2000 |isbn=0-582-30303-6 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Mason, Emma |title=House of Godwine: The History of Dynasty |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=1-85285-389-1 }} |
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* {{cite journal |author=Oleson, T. J. |title=Edward the Confessor's Promise of the Throne to Duke William of Normandy |journal = [[The English Historical Review]] |volume=72 |issue=283 |date=April 1957 |pages= 221–228 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LXXII.CCLXXXIII.221 |jstor= 558704}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Plant, Richard |title=Ecclesiastical Architecture c.1050 to c.1200 |encyclopedia = A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor1=Harper-Bill, Christopher |editor2=van Houts, Elizabeth |pages=215–253 |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84383-341-3 }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Potts, Cassandra |title=Normandy, 911–1144 |encyclopedia = A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor1=Harper-Bill, Christopher |editor2=van Houts, Elizabeth |pages=19–42 |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84383-341-3 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Rex, Peter |title=Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7394-7185-2 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline |authorlink=Pauline Stafford |title=Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in Eleventh-century England |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, MA |year=1997 |isbn=0-631-22738-5 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Stafford, Pauline|authorlink=Pauline Stafford |title= Unification and Conquest: A Political and Social History of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries |publisher=Edward Arnold |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-7131-6532-4 }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |title= Anglo-Saxon England |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia| author=Turner, D.H |title= Illuminated Manuscripts: Part II, The Golden Age |editors= Backhouse, Janet, Turner, D.H., and Webster, Leslie|encyclopedia= The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon Art, 966–1066 |year= 1984 |publisher=British Museum Publications | oclc= 11211909}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |author=van Houts, Elizabeth |title=Jumièges, William of (fl. 1026–1070)| encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/54418 |accessdate=30 September 2008 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/54418 |format= {{ODNBsub}} }} |
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* {{cite book |author=Walker, Ian |title=Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King |publisher=Wrens Park |location=Gloucestershire, UK |year=2000|isbn=0-905778-46-4 }} |
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{{refend}} |
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==Further reading== |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia | author=Gem, R. D. H. |title=The Romanesque rebuilding of Westminster Abbey |encyclopedia= Anglo-Norman Studies |volume= 3 |year=1980 |pages=33–60}} or [http://www.pindarpress.co.uk/catalogue/medieval-western/gem-architecture-vol2.htm his collected papers] |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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* {{PASE|10517|Robert 5}} |
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Revision as of 01:48, 29 June 2016
STOP REVERTING THE CHANGES, IT IS NOT FUNNY