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==Further Reading==
==Further Reading==

* {{cite book | author = Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner (eds) | title = Family in society : essential primary sources. | | publisher = Thomson Gale | year = 2006 | id = ISBN 1414403305 }} Primary resource collection and readings. Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 06:16, 24 February 2007

For other uses, see Parent (disambiguation).

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Parenting is the process of raising and educating a child from birth until adulthood. This is usually done in a child's family by the mother and/or father (i.e., the biological parents). Where parents are unable or unwilling to provide this care, it is usually taken on by close relatives, such as older siblings, aunts and uncles, or grandparents. In other cases, children may be cared for by adoptive parents, foster parents, godparents, or in institutions (such as group homes or orphanages). There are also circumstances, such as on a kibbutz, where parenting is an actual job even when natural parents exist. Parens patriae refers to the public policy power of the state to usurp the rights of the natural parent, legal guardian or informal caregiver, and to act as the parent of any child or individual who is in need of protection (i.e. if the child's caregiver is exceedingly violent or dangerous).

Aspects of parenting

Parenting methods and practices

Main articles: Nurturant parent model and Strict father model

Parenting typically utilizes rewards, praise, and discipline or punishment as tools of behavioral control. Most child development experts now agree that corporal punishment is not an effective behavior modification tool, and many parents have adopted non-physical approaches to child discipline. In some jurisdictions, corporal punishment (e.g., spanking or whipping) has been prohibited by law.

"Attachment parenting" seeks to create strong emotional bonds and avoids physical punishment, with discipline being accomplished through interactions recognizing a child's emotional needs. The term "child training" implies a specific type of parenting that focuses on holistic understanding of the child. The "Taking Children Seriously" philosophy sees both praise and punishment as manipulative and harmful to children and advocates other methods to reach agreement with them.

Parenting Across the Lifespan

See also: Pregnancy, antenatal care, Prenatal care, and Childcare

Pregnancy and prenatal parenting

During pregnancy the unborn child is affected by many decisions his or her parents make, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health and diet decisions of the mother can have either a positive or negative impact on the child.

Many people believe that parenting begins with birth, but the mother begins raising and nurturing a child well before birth. Scientific evidence indicates that from the fifth month on, the unborn baby is able to hear sound, be aware of motion, and possibly exhibit short-term memory. Several studies (e.g. Kissilevsky et al., 2003) show evidence that the unborn baby can become familiar with his or her parents' voices. Other research indicates that by the seventh month, external schedule cues influence the unborn baby's sleep habits. Based on this evidence, parenting actually begins well before birth.

Infants

Main article: infant

Being the parent of an infant is a major responsibility. Infants require a lot of care including (but not limited to) feeding, bathing, changing diapers, and health care.

Toddlers

See also: Toddler

Parenting a Toddler is a lot of work. Parenting responsibilities during the toddler years include (but are not limited to) feeding, bathing, potty training, ensuring their safety, teaching, and attending to their well being. Common parenting issues with toddlers:

Preschoolers

Parenting responsibilities for preschool age children often include (but are not limited to)feeding, bathing,teaching, ensuring their safety, and attending to their well being. Parents are expected to make decisions about preschool education. Issues related to parenting preschool age children:

Elementary and Middle School Years

Parenting responsibilities during the school years include (but are not limited to) feeding, assisting with education, ensuring their safety and wellness, and providing them with a loving and nurturing home environment. Issues related to parenting school age children:

Adolescents

During adolescence children are beginning to form their identity and are testing and developing the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Although adolescents look to peers and adults outside of the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents remain influential in their development. Parents should make efforts to be aware of their adolescents activities, provide guidance, direction, and consultation. Adolescence can be a time of high risk for children, where newfound freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities.

Young Adults

Adults and Older Adults

The roles parents play in their relationship with their adult children and grandchildren is an area studied in a field called Gerontology.

Assistance

Parents may receive assistance from a variety of individuals and organizations. Employers may offer specific benefits or programs for parents.

Observers

Benjamin Spock was an authority on parenting to a generation of North American parents. A current authority is T. Berry Brazelton, the founder of the Child Development Unit at Children's Hospital, Boston, and Professor of Pediatrics Emeritus at Harvard Medical School.

Parenting assessment

There are several parent self-report measures that have been developed for use by clinicians and researchers to assess parenting, such as the Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin, 1995) and Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavolek, 1984). Parenting measures can also be observational, such as the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II; Holigrocki, Kaminski, & Frieswyk, 1999).

See:

  • Abidin, R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: Professional Manual. 3rd Ed. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
  • Bavolek, S. J. (1984). Handbook for the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory. Eau Claire, Wisconsin: Family Development Associates, Inc.
  • Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H. (1999). Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 63(3), 413–428.

Christian parenting

See also: James Dobson and Strict father model

Christian parenting is popular amongst Evangelicals and fundamentalist Christian parents who see it as applying biblical principles to parenting. Information on Christian parenting is found in publications[1], Christian Parenting websites[2] and in seminars devoted to assisting parents to apply Christian principles to parenting. Particualy influential has been James Dobson and his guide "Dare to Discipline"[3].

While some Christian parenting models are strict and authoritarian, others are "grace-based" and share methods advocated in attachment parenting and positive parenting theories.

In a study[4] of Christian parents done by Christian Parenting Today in 2000, 39% have family devotions once a week or more, and 69% of parents consider Sunday school, youth and children's programs extremely important.

Some scientists, including Richard Dawkins, consider christian or other religious parenting to be child abuse.[1]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ http://www.thomasnelson.com/consumer/
  2. ^ http://www.familiesonlinemagazine.com/christian-parenting/index.html
  3. ^ Dare to Discipline. Bantam, 1982. ISBN 0-553-20346-0
  4. ^ http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/2001/005/11.128.html

Further Reading

  • Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner (eds) (2006). Family in society : essential primary sources. Thomson Gale. ISBN 1414403305. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help) Primary resource collection and readings. Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms
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