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{{disputed|date=February 2015}} Of the 3400 snake species, there are around 600 venomous snake species in the world. This is an overview of the snakes that pose a significant health risk to humans, through [[snakebite]]s or other [[trauma (medicine)|physical trauma]]. The varieties of snake that most often cause serious snakebites depend on the region of the world.<!-- <ref name=Brut2013/> --> In Africa, the most dangerous species include [[mamba]]s, [[Egyptian cobra]]s, [[Bitis arietans|puff adders]], and [[carpet viper]]s<!-- <ref name=Brut2013/> --> In the Middle East the species of greatest concern are carpet vipers and [[elapid]]s;<!-- <ref name=Brut2013/> --> in Central and South America, ''[[Bothrops]]'' (including the [[terciopelo]] or fer-de-lance) and ''[[Crotalus]]'' ([[rattlesnake]]s) are of greatest concern.<!-- <ref name=Brut2013/> --> In South Asia, it has historically been believed that [[Indian cobra]]s, [[common krait]]s, [[Russell's viper]] and carpet vipers were the most dangerous species; <!-- <ref name=Brut2013/> -->however other snakes may also cause significant problems in this area of the world.<ref name=Brut2013>{{cite book|last=Brutto|first=edited by Hector H. Garcia, Herbert B. Tanowitz, Oscar H. Del|title=Neuroparasitology and tropical neurology|date=2013|isbn=9780444534996|pages=351|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJx3g30aDhIC&pg=PA351}}</ref> While several species of snakes may cause more bodily destruction than others, any of these venomous snakes are still very capable of causing human fatalities should a bite go untreated, regardless of their venom capabilities or behavioral tendencies.

==Most venomous==
{{Main|Venomous snake}}
The [[median lethal dose]] (LD<sub>50</sub>) of a venom is the [[Dose (pharmacology)|dose]] required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration. A lower LD<sub>50</sub> is indicative of increased toxicity.

There are four methods in which the LD<sub>50</sub> test is measured:

[[subcutaneous injection|Subcutaneous]] : Venom is injected into the fatty layer beneath the skin. <br>[[intravenous injection|Intravenous]] : Venom is injected directly into a vein. <br>[[intramuscular injection|Intramuscular]] : Venom is injected into a muscle. <br>[[intraperitoneal injection|Intraperitoneal]] : Venom is injected into the abdominal cavity. <br>The most commonly tested methods are subcutaneous and intravenous injections of mice. Subcutaneous is the most applicable to actual bites. Only large ''[[Bitis]]'' or extremely large ''[[Bothrops]]'' or ''[[Crotalus]]'' specimens would be able to deliver a bite that is truly intramuscular. Intravenous injections are extremely rare in actual bites. Testing using dry venom mixed with 0.1% [[bovine serum albumin]] in [[Saline (medicine)|saline]], gives more consistent results than just saline alone.
{|class="wikitable" border="1" style="margin:0 1em 0.5em 1em;"
|+ Most venomous snakes of the world<ref>Broad and Sutherland, 1979. [http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu5/broad1979b.pdf The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom] [[Toxicon]] vol. 17 Retrieved April 8, 2014</ref><ref>The Australian venom research unit (January 11, 2014). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150111055930/http://www.avru.org/?q=general%2Fgeneral_mostvenom.html Facts and Figures: World's Most Venomous Snakes] (archived). [[University of Melbourne]]. Retrieved July 14, 2014.</ref><ref name=FryB>Fry, B. Associate professor,School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland (February 24, 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413182323/http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html "Snakes Venom LD<sub>50</sub> – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection "]. venomdoc.com. (archived) Retrieved October 14, 2013.</ref>
|-
| '''Snake''' || '''Region''' || '''[[subcutaneous injection]] {{LD50}}''' 0.1% bovine serum albumin in Saline||'''[[subcutaneous injection]] {{LD50}}''' Saline ||'''[[intravenous injection]] {{LD50}}'''
|-
| [[Inland Taipan]] || Inland, central Australia ||N/A || 0.044&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Pseudonaja textilis|Eastern brown snake]] || Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia || 0.041&nbsp;mg/kg||0.053&nbsp;mg/kg||0.01&nbsp;mg/kg
|-
| [[Pelamis platura|Yellow bellied sea snake]] || Tropical oceanic waters ||N/A ||0.067&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Acalyptophis peronii|Peron's sea snake]] || Gulf of Siam, Strait of Taiwan, Coral sea islands, and other places ||N/A || 0.079&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Coastal Taipan]] || Australia || 0.064&nbsp;mg/kg||0.099&nbsp;mg/kg||0.013&nbsp;mg/kg
|-
| [[Many-banded krait]] || Mainland China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Laos, Burma ||N/A || 0.108&nbsp;mg/kg||0.113&nbsp;mg/kg
|-
| [[Black-banded sea krait]] || eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula and Brunei, and in Halmahera, Indonesia.. ||N/A || 0.111&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Black tiger snake]] || Australia|| 0.099&nbsp;mg/kg||0.131&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Western tiger snake]] || Australia|| 0.124&nbsp;mg/kg||0.194&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|-
| [[Beaked sea snake]] || Tropical Indo-Pacific || 0.173&nbsp;mg/kg|0.164&nbsp;mg/kg||0.1125&nbsp;mg/kg||N/A
|}

{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="margin:0 1em 0.5em 1em;"
|+ Various species' mice and estimated human fatality count based on maximum venom dose
|-
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Species
! scope="col" | LD<sub>50</sub> [[Subcutis|SC]]
! scope="col" | Dose
! scope="col" | Mice
! scope="col" | Humans
|-
| [[Inland taipan]] (''O. microlepidotus'') || 0.01&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug">{{cite book|last= Zug|first= George R.|title= Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book |year= 1996|publisher= Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |location= Washington D.C., USA|isbn= 1-56098-648-4}}</ref> || 110&nbsp;mg<ref name="inchem1" /> || 1,085,000 || 289
|-
| [[Forest cobra]] (''N. melanoleuca'') || 0.225&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /><ref name=M67/> || 1102&nbsp;mg<ref name="Mir06" /> || 244,889 || 65
|-
| [[Eastern brown snake]] (''P. textilis'') || 0.03&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /> || 155&nbsp;mg<ref name="Mir06" /> || 212,329 || 58
|-
| [[Coastal taipan]] (''O. s. scutellatus'') || 0.106&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /> || 400&nbsp;mg<ref name="inchem1" />|| 208,019 || 56
|-
| [[Caspian cobra]] (''N. oxiana'') || 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name=IJEB/> || 590&nbsp;mg<ref name="Latifi84" />|| 162,165 || 42
|-
| [[Black mamba]] (''D. polylepis'') || 0.28&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name=M&M>{{cite book|last=Minton, Minton|first=SA, MR|title=Venomous Reptiles|year=1969|publisher=New York Charles Scribner's Sons|location=USA}}</ref> || 400&nbsp;mg<ref name="Chippaux" /> || ||
|-
| [[Russell's viper]] (''D. russelli'') || 0.162&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /> || 268&nbsp;mg<ref name="Mal03" />|| 88,211 || 22
|-
| [[King cobra]] (''O. hannah'') || 1.09&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /> || 1000&nbsp;mg<ref name="OHVY">{{cite journal|last=Pung|first=Yuh Fen|author2=Peter T. H. Wong |author3=Prakash P. Kumar |author4=Wayne C. Hodgson |author5=R. Manjunatha Kini |title=Ohanin, a Novel Protein from King Cobra Venom, Induces Hypolocomotion and Hyperalgesia in Mice|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry|date=24 January 2005|volume=280|issue=13|pages=13137–13147|doi=10.1074/jbc.M414137200|url=http://www.jbc.org/content/280/13/13137.full|accessdate=6 November 2013}}</ref>|| 45,830 || 11
|-
| [[Indian cobra]] (''N. naja'') || 0.80&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="Bro73" />|| 610&nbsp;mg<ref name="M&M"/>|| 33,689 || 10
|-
| [[Cape cobra]] (''N. nivea'') || 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" />|| 250&nbsp;mg<ref name="BB98">{{cite book|last=Branch|first=Bill|title=Field Guide Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa|year=1998|publisher=Struik Publishers|isbn=1868720403|page=108}}</ref>|| 31,250 || 9
|-
| [[Terciopelo]] (''B. asper'') || 3.1&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" />|| 1530&nbsp;mg<ref name="War-C&L04" />|| 24,380 || 6
|-
| [[Gaboon viper]] (''B. gabonica'') || 5&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" />|| 2400&nbsp;mg<ref name="Mal03" />|| 24,000 || 6
|-
| [[Saw-scaled viper]] (''E. carinatus'') || 0.151&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="ErZug" /> || 72&nbsp;mg<ref name="Daniels">Daniels,J. C. (2002) The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians, BNHS & Oxford University Press, Mumbai, pp 151-153. {{ISBN|0-19-566099-4}}</ref>|| 23,841 || 6
|}

==Extremely dangerous==

Mortality (often determined by measured toxicity on mice) is a commonly used indicator to determine the danger of any given venomous snake, but important too are its efficiency of venom delivery, its venom yield and its behavior when it encounters humans.<ref name="World's Deadliest Snakes">Venomous Snakes. [http://www.reptilegardens.com/reptiles/snakes/venomous/worlds-deadliest-snakes.php World's Deadliest Snakes – Ranking scale]. [[Reptile Gardens]]. Retrieved October 18, 2013.</ref><ref name="What are the world's most deadly venomous snakes?">Walls, Jerry G. . [http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Snakes/Wild-Snakes/The-Worlds-Deadliest-Snakes/ Deadly Snakes: What are the world's most deadly venomous snakes?]. [[Reptiles (magazine)]]. Retrieved November 5, 2013.</ref> Many snake experts have cited the black mamba and the coastal taipan as the world's most dangerous, albeit not the most venomous snakes.<ref name="Haji">{{cite web|last=Haji |first=R. |title=Venomous snakes and snake bites |url=http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf |work=Zoocheck Canada |accessdate=25 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425231856/http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf |archivedate=25 April 2012 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Pitman74">{{cite book|last=Pitman|first=Charles R.S.|authorlink=Charles Pitman (scientist)|title=A Guide to the Snakes of Uganda|year=1974|publisher=Wheldon & Wesley|location=United Kingdom|isbn=0-85486-020-7|page=290}}</ref><ref name="QM">{{cite web|title=Coastal Taipan|url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Reptiles/Snakes/Common+and+dangerous+species/Coastal+Taipan|work=Queensland Museum|publisher=Queensland Government|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> Both species are [[elapid]]s, and in several aspects of morphology, ecology and behaviour, the coastal taipan is strongly convergent with the black mamba.<ref name="TaipanMamba">{{cite journal|authors=Shine, Richard; Covacevich, Jeanette.|title=A Ecology of Highly Venomous Snakes: the Australian Genus ''Oxyuranus'' (Elapidae)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1563782|journal= Journal of Herpetology | volume= 17 | issue= 1 |date = March 1983 |pages= 60–69 |doi=10.2307/1563782}}</ref> Black mamba and coastal taipan bites require very rapid and vigorous antivenom therapy as without such intervention they are almost always fatal. The venoms of both species are exceptionally quick acting.

===Black mamba===
[[File:Dendroaspis polylepis by Bill Love.jpg|upright|thumb|Black mamba (''Dendroaspis polylepis'')]]
The African [[Black mamba]] (''Dendroaspis polylepis'') is a large and highly venomous snake species native to much of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. It is the second longest venomous snake species in the world and is the fastest moving land snake, capable of moving at 4.32 to 5.4 metres per second (16–20&nbsp;km/h, 10–12&nbsp;mph).<ref name="NG">{{cite web|title=Black Mamba|url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/black-mamba/|work=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref><ref name="record">{{cite book|last=Glenday|first=Craig|title=Guinness World Records 2009|year=2009|publisher=Bantam|isbn=0553592564|page=57}}</ref> It is the most feared and most dangerous snake species in Africa and it has a reputation as a fierce and territorial snake.{{original research inline|date=October 2016}} When cornered or threatened, the black mamba can put up a fearsome display of defense and aggression. A black mamba will often mimic a cobra by spreading a neck-flap, exposing its black mouth, raising its body off the ground, and hissing. It can rear up around one-third of its body from the ground, which can put it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Their strikes are very quick and extremely accurate and effective.<ref name="Chippaux" /> If the attempt to scare away the threat fails, it will strike repeatedly.<ref name="NG" /> This species of snake often shows an incredible amount of tenacity, fearlessness, and aggression when cornered or threatened, during breeding season, or when defending its territory.<ref name="ErZug" /> They are also known to have a 100% rate of [[envenomation]]. The probability of dry bites (no venom injected) in black mamba strikes is almost non-existent.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref name="Crisp">{{cite journal |pmid=4035489 |year=1985 |last1=Crisp |first1=NG |title=Black mamba envenomation |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=293–4 |journal=South African Medical Journal}}</ref> The venom of the black mamba is a protein of low molecular weight and as a result is able to spread rapidly within the bitten tissue. The venom of this species is the most rapid-acting venom of any snake species<ref name="Chippaux">{{cite book|last=Chippaux|first=Jean-phillipe|title=Snake Venoms and Envenomations|year=2006|publisher=Krieger Publishing Company|location=United States|isbn=1-57524-272-9|page=300}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sii Polyvalent Anti-Snake Venom|url=http://www.seruminstitute.com/content/products/product_antisera2.htm|work=Serum Institute of India|publisher=Serum Institute}}</ref><ref name="SD">{{cite journal|last=Strydom|first=Daniel J.|title=Purification and Properties of Low-Molecular-Weight Polypeptides of Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis (Black Mamba) Venom|journal=European Journal of Biochemistry|date=1 October 1976|volume=69|issue=1|pages=169–176|pmid=991854|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1976.tb10870.x/pdf|accessdate=4 November 2013|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1976.tb10870.x}}</ref> and consists mainly of highly potent [[neurotoxin]]s;<ref name="WCH">{{cite web|title=''Dendroaspis polylepis'' – General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms |url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0170 |work=WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource |publisher=University of Adelaide |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190702/http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0170 |archivedate=October 29, 2013 }}</ref><ref>Reed, Tim; Eaton, Katie; Peng, Cathy and Doern, BettyLou. [http://cogs.csustan.edu/~tom/bioinfo/groupwork/cobra/cobra-venom.ppt Neurotoxins in Snake Venom]. California State University Stanislaus. csustan.edu.</ref> it also contains [[cardiotoxin]]s,<ref name="Territory">{{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Deborah|title=The Encyclopedia of Poisons and Antidotes|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|date=September 2009|location=New York, USA|page=324|isbn=0-8160-6401-6}}</ref><ref name="MambaCDTX">{{cite journal |doi=10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0115:PCOTVO]2.3.CO;2 |title=Putative cardiotoxicity of the venoms of three mamba species |year=1996 |last1=Van Aswegen |first1=G. |last2=Van Rooyen |first2=J.M. |last3=Fourie |first3=C. |last4=Oberholzer |first4=G. |journal=Wilderness & Environmental Medicine |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=115–21 |pmid=11990104}}</ref> fasciculins,<ref name="WCH" /> and [[calciseptine]].<ref name="Calciseptine">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.88.6.2437 |title=Calciseptine, a peptide isolated from black mamba venom, is a specific blocker of the L-type calcium channel |year=1991 |last1=De Weille |first1=J. R. |last2=Schweitz |first2=H. |last3=Maes |first3=P. |last4=Tartar |first4=A. |last5=Lazdunski |first5=M. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=88 |issue=6 |pages=2437–40 |jstor=2356398 |bibcode=1991PNAS...88.2437D |pmid=1848702 |pmc=51247}}</ref>

Based on the [[Median lethal dose]] (LD<sub>50</sub>) values in mice, the black mamba LD<sub>50</sub> from all published sources is as follows:
* (SC) [[Subcutaneous injection|subcutaneous]] (most applicable to real bites): 0.32&nbsp;mg/kg,<ref name="Fry, Bryan">Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne (March 9, 2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413182323/http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html "Snakes Venom LD<sub>50</sub> – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection "]. venomdoc.com. (archived) Retrieved October 14, 2013.</ref><ref name=ShermanMinton>Sherman A. Minton, (May 1, 1974) Venom diseases, Page 116</ref><ref>Philip Wexler, 2005, Encyclopedia of toxicology, Page 59</ref> 0.28&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="S&B95">{{cite book | first1=S. | last1=Spawls | title=The dangerous snakes of Africa: natural history, species directory, venoms, and snakebite | publisher=Ralph Curtis-Books | last2=Branch | first2=B. | year=1995 | location=Dubai: Oriental Press | pages=49–51 | isbn=0-88359-029-8}}</ref><ref name=JerryWalls>JERRY G. WALLS, [http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Snakes/Wild-Snakes/The-Worlds-Deadliest-Snakes/ The World's Deadliest Snakes], [[Reptiles (magazine)]]</ref>
* (IV) [[intravenous]]: 0.25&nbsp;mg/kg,<ref name="Fry, Bryan"/><ref name=ShermanMinton/> 0.011&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref>Thomas J. Haley, William O. Berndt, 2002, Toxicology, Page 446</ref>
* (IP) [[Intraperitoneal injection|intraperitoneal]]: 0.30&nbsp;mg/kg (average),<ref>Scott A Weinstein, David A. Warrell, Julian White and Daniel E Keyler (Jul 1, 2011) " Bites from Non-Venomous Snakes: A Critical Analysis of Risk and Management of "Colubrid" Snake Bites (page 246)</ref> 0.941&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Fry, Bryan"/> 0.05&nbsp;mg/kg (the last quote doesn't make it clear if is either [[intravenous]] or [[Intraperitoneal injection|intraperitoneal]]).<ref name="ErZug"/>

It is estimated{{by whom|date=October 2016}} that only 10 to 15&nbsp;mg will kill a human adult; however, its bites deliver about 120&nbsp;mg of venom on average, although they may deliver up to 400&nbsp;mg of venom in a single bite.<ref name="Chippaux" /><ref name="Bro73" /> If bitten, severe neurotoxicity invariably ensues rapidly. This is because of several factors that include the high potency of their venom, the unusual composition of synergistic toxins contained within the venom which bring on severe symptoms of envenomation and death much faster than any other venomous snake in the world.<ref name="Chippaux" /> In addition, the species itself possesses the most advanced, evolved, and efficient venom delivery apparatus among all venomous snakes, and the most advanced and evolved dentition of all elapids.<ref name=D&C/><ref name="Corwin">{{cite AV media |people=Corwin, Jeff|year=2003 |title=Wildlife Footage|medium=Motion picture|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ThGZ1VQXXpk&t=01m15s|accessdate=28 December 2014|location=Africa |publisher= Youtube}}</ref><ref name="JW presentation00">{{cite AV media |people=Wasilewski, Joe|year=2011 |title=Wildlife Footage|medium=Motion picture|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVoD9doGRso|accessdate=27 December 2013|location=Africa |publisher= Youtube}}</ref> Black mambas possess the longest fangs of any elapid, averaging around {{convert|13.1|mm|in|sp=us}}, but may grow as long as {{convert|22|mm|in|sp=us}}.<ref name=D&C>{{cite journal|last1=Deufel|first1=A.|last2=Cundall|first2=D.|title=Prey transport in "palatine-erecting" elapid snakes|journal=Journal of Morphology|date=2003|volume=258|issue=3|pages=358–375|doi=10.1002/jmor.10164}}</ref><ref name="AS01"/> Another feature that distinguishes the dentition and the venom delivery apparatus of this species from all other elapids and other species of venomous snake, including those of the family Viperidae is the fact that the fangs are positioned well forward at the most-anterior position possible in its mouth - right up in the front of its upper jaw.<ref name="JW presentation00"/><ref name="AS01">{{cite AV media |people=Stevens, Austin|year=2001 |title=Austin Stevens: Snakemaster [Search for the Black Mamba]|medium=Motion picture|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evS3XDcnOBQ&t=37m55s|accessdate=28 December 2014|location=Namibia, Africa |publisher= Youtube}}</ref><ref name="JW presentation02">{{cite AV media |people=Wasilewski, Joe|year=2011 |title=Wildlife Footage|medium=Motion picture|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTqh6yr2qWA&t=00m15s|accessdate=28 December 2014|location=Africa |publisher= Youtube}}</ref> The proteins in black mamba venom are of low molecular weight, low viscosity, and the venom's high activity in terms of hyaluronidases, which is also essential in facilitating dispersion of venom toxins throughout tissue (spreading the venom through the body) by catalyzing the hydrolysis of hyaluronan, a constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM), hyaluronidase lowers the viscosity of hyaluronan, and Dendroaspin natriuretic peptide (DNP), a newly discovered component of mamba venom, is the most-potent natriuretic peptide and it's unique to the genus ''Dendroaspis'', or mambas. It is a polypeptide analogous to the human atrial natriuretic peptide; it is responsible for causing diuresis through natriuresis and dilating the vessel bloodstream, which results in, among other things, acceleration of venom distribution in the body of the victim, thereby increasing tissue permeability.<ref name="JW presentation01">{{cite AV media |people=Wasilewski, Joe|year=2011 |title=Wildlife Footage|medium=Motion picture|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVoD9doGRso&t=02m25s|accessdate=28 December 2014|location=Africa |publisher= Youtube}}</ref><ref name=VJ>{{cite book|last1=Valenta|first1=J.|title=Venomous Snakes: Envenoming, Therapy|date=2010|publisher=Nova Science Publishers|isbn=978-1-60876-618-5|pages=108–111}}</ref> These advanced and highly evolved physical and biological features combined with this species' large size, explosive aggression, and quickness make the black mamba a terrifying adversary. [[Neurology|Neurological]], [[Respiratory system|respiratory]], and [[cardiovascular]] symptoms rapidly begin to manifest, usually within less than ten minutes. Common symptoms are rapid onset of dizziness, drowsiness, headache, coughing or difficulty breathing, convulsions, and an erratic heartbeat. Other common symptoms which come on rapidly include neuromuscular symptoms, shock, loss of consciousness, [[hypotension]], [[pallor]], [[ataxia]], excessive salivation (oral secretions may become profuse and thick), limb paralysis, nausea and vomiting, [[Ptosis (eyelid)|ptosis]], fever, and severe abdominal pain. Local tissue damage appears to be relatively infrequent and of minor severity in most cases of black mamba envenomation. [[Edema]] is typically minimal. Acute [[renal failure]] has been reported in a few cases of black mamba bites in humans as well as in animal models.<ref name="Davidson" /> The venom of this species has been known to cause permanent [[paralysis]] in some cases.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite web|title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID for bites by Black Mamba (''Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis'')|url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Dendroa3.htm|publisher=University of California at San Diego}}</ref><ref name="Hilligan">{{cite journal |pmid=3603321 |year=1987 |last1=Hilligan |first1=R |title=Black mamba bites. A report of 2 cases |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=220–1 |journal=South African medical journal}}</ref> Untreated black mamba bites have a mortality rate of 100%.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref name=Z11>{{cite journal|last=Závada|first=J.|author2=Valenta J. |author3=Kopecký O. |author4=Stach Z. |author5=Leden P |title=Black Mamba Dendroaspis Polylepis Bite: A Case Report|journal=Prague Medical Journal|year=2011|volume=112|issue=4|pages=298–304|pmid=22142525}}</ref> [[Antivenom]] therapy is the mainstay of treatment for black mamba envenomation. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR) is used to treat all black mamba bites from different localities.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref name="SB95" /> Because of the availability of antivenom, a bite from a black mamba no longer results in certain death, but in order for the antivenom therapy to be successful, vigorous treatment and large doses of antivenom must be administered rapidly post-envenomation. In case studies of black mamba envenomation, respiratory paralysis has occurred in less than 15 minutes. Envenomation by this species invariably causes severe neurotoxicity because black mambas often strike repeatedly in a single lunge, biting the victim up to 12 times in extremely rapid succession.<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis)|url=http://www.thewildlifemuseum.org/exhibits/Africa-Deadly/doc/Black%20Mamba.pdf|publisher=The Wildlife Museum}}</ref> Such an attack is fast, lasting less than one second, and so it may appear to be a single strike and single bite. With each bite, the snake delivers anywhere from 100 to 400&nbsp;mg of a rapid-acting and virulently toxic venom. As a result, the doses of antivenom required are often massive (10–30+ vials) for bites from this species.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Although antivenom saves many lives, mortality due to black mamba envenomation is still at 14%, even with antivenom treatment.<ref name=Christensen>{{cite journal|last=Christensen|first=PA|title=Snakebite and the use of antivenom in southern Africa|journal=South African Medical Journal|date=20 June 1981|volume=59|issue=26|pages=934–938|pmid=7244896}}</ref> In addition to antivenom treatment, [[Tracheal intubation|endotracheal intubation]] and [[mechanical ventilation]] are required for supportive therapy.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref name="V&C78">{{cite book|last=Visser, Chapman|first=John, David S|title=Snakes and Snakebite: Venomous snakes and management of snake bite in Southern Africa|year=1978|publisher=Purnell|isbn=0-86843-011-0}}</ref>

===Coastal taipan/Papuan taipan===
[[File:Costal Tiapan at Taronga Zoo.jpg|thumb|Coastal taipan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus'') at Taronga Zoo]]
The [[Coastal taipan]] (''Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus'') is a large, highly venomous Australian elapid that ranges in an arc along the east coast of Australia from northeastern [[New South Wales]] through [[Queensland]] and across the northern parts of the [[Northern Territory]] to northern [[Western Australia]]. It has one subspecies, the Papuan taipan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus canni''). The Papuan taipan is found throughout the southern parts of the island of [[New Guinea]]. This snake can be highly aggressive when cornered and will actively defend itself.<ref name="DD" /> They are extremely nervous and alert snakes, and any movement near them is likely to trigger an attack. When threatened, this species adopts a loose striking stance with its head and forebody raised. It inflates and compresses its body laterally (not dorso-ventrally like many other species) and may also spread the back of its jaws to give the head a broader, lance-shaped appearance. In this position the snake will strike without much provocation, inflicting multiple bites with extreme accuracy and efficiency. The muscular lightweight body of the Taipan allows it to hurl itself forwards or sideways and reach high off the ground, and such is the speed of the attack that a person may be bitten several times before realizing the snake is there.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coastal Taipan|url=http://australianmuseum.net.au/Coastal-Taipan|publisher=Australian Museum|accessdate=5 November 2013}}</ref> This snake is considered to be one of the most venomous in the world. Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' 1996 and the Australian venom and toxin database both list a {{LD50}} value of 0.106&nbsp;mg/kg for subcutaneous injection.<ref name="ErZug" /><ref name="AVRU">{{cite web|title=Australian Venom Research Unit|url=http://www.avru.org/index.html|publisher=University of Melbourne}}</ref> Engelmann and Obst (1981) list a value of 0.12&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]], with an average venom yield of 120&nbsp;mg per bite and a maximum record of 400&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Engelmann" /> To demonstrate just how deadly this species is, an estimate was made on the number of mice and adult human fatalities it is capable of causing in a single bite that yields the maximum dose of 400&nbsp;mg. Based on the study by Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' 1996, which listed the {{LD50}} of the coastal taipan at 0.106&nbsp;mg [[Subcutis|SC]] and a venom yield of 400&nbsp;mg, this would be sufficient enough to kill 208,019 mice and 59 adult humans in a single bite that delivers 400&nbsp;mg of venom. The venom apparatus of this species is well developed. The fangs are the longest of any Australian elapid snake, being up to {{convert|1.2|cm|in|abbr=on|1}} long, and are able to be brought forward slightly when a strike is contemplated. Coastal taipans can inject large amounts of highly toxic venom deep into tissue. Its venom contains primarily [[taicatoxin]], a highly potent [[neurotoxin]] known to cause [[hemolytic]] and coagulopathic reactions.<ref name="DD" /> The venom affects the nervous system and the blood’s ability to clot, and bite victims may experience headache, nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions (especially in children), paralysis, internal bleeding, myolysis (destruction of muscle tissue) and kidney damage. In a single study done in [[Papua New Guinea]], 166 patients with enzyme immunoassay-proven bites by Papuan taipans (''Oxyuranus scutellatus canni'') were studied in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Of the 166 bite victims, 139 (84%) showed clinical evidence of envenoming: local signs were trivial, but the majority developed hemostatic disorders and neurotoxicity. The blood of 77% of the patients was incoagulable and 35% bled spontaneously, usually from the gums. [[Microhematuria]] was observed in 51% of the patients. Neurotoxic symptoms (ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, bulbar paralysis, and peripheral muscular weakness) developed in 85%. Endotracheal intubation was required in 42% and mechanical ventilation in 37%. [[Electrocardiography|Electrocardiographic]] (ECG or EKG) abnormalities were found in 52% of a group of 69 unselected patients. Specific antivenom raised against Australian taipan venom was effective in stopping spontaneous systemic bleeding and restoring blood coagulability but, in most cases, it neither reversed nor prevented the evolution of paralysis even when given within a few hours of the bite. However, early antivenom treatment was associated statistically with decreased incidence and severity of neurotoxic signs. The low case fatality rate of 4.3% is attributable mainly to the use of mechanical ventilation, a technique rarely available in Papua New Guinea. Earlier use of increased doses of antivenoms of improved specificity might prove more effective.<ref name="Lalloo">{{cite journal|last=Lalloo|first=DG |author2=Trevett AJ |author3=Korinhona A |author4=Nwokolo N |author5=Laurenson IF |author6=Paul M |author7=Black J |author8=Naraqi S |author9=Mavo B |author10=Saweri A|title=nake bites by the Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni): paralysis, hemostatic and electrocardiographic abnormalities, and effects of antivenom|journal=American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|date=June 1995|volume=52|issue=6|pages=525–531|pmid=7611559|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The onset of symptoms is often rapid, and a bite from this species is a life-threatening medical emergency. Prior to the introduction of specific antivenom by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in 1956, a coastal taipan bite was nearly always fatal. In case of severe envenomation, death can occur as early as 30 minutes after being bitten, but average death time after a bite is around 3–6 hours and it is variable, depending on various factors such as the nature of the bite and the health state of the victim.<ref name="DD" /> Envenomation rate is very high, over 80% of bites inject venom. The mortality rate among untreated bite victims is nearly 100%.<ref name="DD">{{cite web|title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID for bites by Australian Taipan or Common Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus)|url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Oxyura~2.htm|publisher=University of California at San Diego|accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="OS">{{cite web|title=Oxyuranus scutellatus|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0518|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref>

==Highly dangerous==
===The Big Four===
The [[Big Four (Indian snakes)|Big Four]] are the four venomous snake species responsible for causing the most snake bite cases in South Asia (mostly in India). The Big Four snakes cause far more snakebites because they are much more abundant in highly populated areas. They are the [[Indian cobra]] (''Naja naja''), [[common krait]] (''Bungarus caeruleus''), [[Russell's viper]] (''Daboia russelii'') and the [[Echis carinatus|Saw-scaled viper]] (''Echis carinatus'').<ref name="Whi90">Whitaker Z. 1990. Snakeman. Penguin Books Ltd. 192 pp. {{ISBN|0-14-014308-4}}.</ref>

====Indian cobra====
[[File:Indiancobra.jpg|thumb|Indian cobra (''Naja naja'')]]
The [[Indian cobra]] (''naja naja'') is a moderately venomous species, but has a rapid-acting venom. In [[mice]], the [[Subcutis|SC]] {{LD50}} for this species is 0.80&nbsp;mg/kg and the average venom yield per bite is between 169 and 250&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Bro73" /><ref name="ct">{{cite web|title= ''Naja naja''|work=University of Adelaide|url=http://toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0041}}</ref> Though it is responsible for many bites, only a small percentage are fatal if proper medical treatment and antivenom are given.<ref name="W&C04">{{cite book|last=Whitaker, Captain|first=Romulus, Ashok|title=Snakes of India, The Field Guide|year=2004|publisher=Draco Books|location=India|isbn=81-901873-0-9|page=372}}</ref> The mortality rate for untreated bite victims can vary from case to case, depending upon the quantity of venom delivered by the individual involved. According to one study, it is approximately 15–20%<ref name="WHO">{{cite journal|author=World Health Organization|title=Zoonotic disease control: baseline epidemiological study on snake-bite treatment and management|journal=Weekly Epidemiological Record|issn=0049-8114|volume=62|issue=42|pages=319–320}}</ref> but in another study, with 1,224 bite cases, the mortality rate was only 6.5%.<ref name="Bro73" /> Estimated fatalities as a result of this species is approximately 15,000 per year, but they are responsible for an estimated 100,000-150,000 non-fatal bites per year.<ref name="RW">{{cite web|last=Whitaker|first=Romulus|title=Publicity Notes One Million Snake Bite|url=http://www.iconfilms.co.uk/assets/files/Publicity%20Notes/Publicity%20Notes%20Snake%20Bite.pdf|publisher=IconFilms|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref>

====Common krait====
[[File:Bungarus caerulus.jpg|thumb|Common krait (''Bungarus caeruleus'')]]
The [[common krait]] (''Bungarus caeruleus'') is often considered to be the most dangerous snake species in India. Its venom consists mostly of powerful [[neurotoxin]]s which induce muscle paralysis. Clinically, its venom contains pre[[Synapse|synaptic]] and postsynaptic neurotoxins,<ref name="ct2" /> which generally affect the nerve endings near the [[synaptic cleft]] of the [[brain]]. Due to the fact that krait venom contains many presynaptic neurotoxins, patients bitten will often not respond to antivenom because once paralysis has developed it is not reversible.<ref name="EMJ" /> This species causes an estimated 10,000 fatalities per year in [[India]] alone.<ref name="RW" /> There is a 70-80% mortality rate in cases where there is no possible or poor and ineffective treatment (e.g., no use of [[mechanical ventilation]], low quantities of antivenom, poor management of possible infection). Average venom yield per bite is 10&nbsp;mg (Brown, 1973), 8 to 20&nbsp;mg (dry weight) (U.S. Dept. Navy, 1968), and 8 to 12&nbsp;mg (dry weight) (Minton, 1974).<ref name="ct2">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0015|quote=Mortality rate:70-80%}}</ref> The lethal adult human dose is 2.5&nbsp;mg.<ref name="EMJ">{{cite journal|last=Isbister|first=G K|title=Snake antivenom research: the importance of case definition|journal=Emergency Medical journal|year=2005|volume=22|issue=6|page=397|
doi=10.1136/emj.2004.022251|url=http://emj.bmj.com/content/22/6/399.full.pdf|pmc=1726810}}</ref><ref name=Mark/> In [[mice]], the {{LD50}} values of its venom are 0.365&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]], 0.169&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]] and 0.089&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum#Layers|IP]].<ref name="Bro73" />

====Russell's viper====
[[File:Tushar mone.jpg|thumb|Russell's viper (''Daboia russelii'')]]
[[Russell's viper]] (''Daboia russelii'') produces one of the most excruciatingly painful bites of all venomous snakes. Internal bleeding is common. Bruising, blistering and necrosis may appear relatively quickly as well.<ref name="Warrell">{{cite web|last=Warrell|first=David A.|title=Clinical Features of Snakebite|url=http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-vi/biological-hazards/item/255-clinical-features-of-snakebite|work=Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety|publisher=Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> The Russell's viper is irritable, short-tempered and a very aggressive snake by nature and when irritated, coils tightly, hisses, and strikes with lightning speed. This species is responsible for more human fatalities in India than any other snake species, causing an estimated 25,000 fatalities annually.<ref name="RW" /> The {{LD50}} in mice, which is used as a possible indicator of snake venom toxicity, is as follows: 0.133&nbsp;mg/kg intravenous, 0.40&nbsp;mg/kg intraperitoneal, and about 0.75&nbsp;mg/kg subcutaneous.<ref name="aa" /> For most humans, a lethal dose is approximately 40–70&nbsp;mg. However, the quantity of venom produced by individual specimens is considerable. Reported venom yields for adult specimens range from 130–250&nbsp;mg to 150–250&nbsp;mg to 21–268&nbsp;mg. For 13 juveniles with an average length of 79&nbsp;cm, the average venom yield was 8–79&nbsp;mg (mean 45&nbsp;mg).<ref name="Mal03" />

====Saw-scaled viper====
[[File:Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinatus) Photographed By Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|thumb|Saw-scaled viper (''Echis carinatus'')]]
The [[Saw-scaled viper]] (''Echis carinatus'') is small, but its unpredictability, aggressive temper, and lethal venom potency make it very dangerous. This species is one of the fastest striking snakes in the world, and mortality rates for those bitten are very high. In [[India]] alone, the saw-scaled viper is responsible for an estimated 5,000 human fatalities annually.<ref name="RW" /> However, because it ranges from [[Pakistan]], India (in rocky regions of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab), [[Sri Lanka]], parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]] north of the equator,<ref name="McD99">McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. {{ISBN|1-893777-00-6}} (series). {{ISBN|1-893777-01-4}} (volume).</ref> is believed to cause more human fatalities every year than any other snake species.<ref name="EB">{{cite web|title=Saw-scaled viper|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525886/saw-scaled-viper|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> In drier regions of the [[Africa]]n continent, such as [[sahel]]s and savannas, the [[Echis carinatus|saw-scaled vipers]] inflict up to 90% of all bites.<ref name="Mackessy2010,p.456">{{harvnb|Mackessy|2010|p=456}}</ref> The rate of envenomation is over 80%.<ref name="Echis">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0057}}</ref> The saw-scaled viper also produces a particularly painful bite. This species produces on the average of about 18&nbsp;mg of dry venom by weight, with a recorded maximum of 72&nbsp;mg. It may inject as much as 12&nbsp;mg, whereas the lethal dose for an adult human is estimated to be only 5&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Daniels" /> Envenomation results in local symptoms as well as severe systemic symptoms that may prove fatal. Local symptoms include swelling and intense pain, which appear within minutes of a bite. In very bad cases the swelling may extend up the entire affected limb within 12–24 hours and blisters form on the skin.<ref name="Ali04">{{cite journal | author = Ali G, Kak M, Kumar M, Bali SK, Tak SI, Hassan G, Wadhwa MB | year = 2004 | title = Acute renal failure following echis carinatus (saw–scaled viper) envenomation | url = http://medind.nic.in/iav/t04/i4/iavt04i4p177.pdf#search=%22%22echis%20carinatus%22%20%2B%20envenomation%22 | journal = Indian Journal of Nephrology | volume = 14 | issue = | pages = 177–181 }}</ref> Of the more dangerous systemic symptoms, [[Bleeding|hemorrhage]] and coagulation defects are the most striking. [[Hematemesis]], [[melena]], [[hemoptysis]], [[hematuria]] and [[epistaxis]] also occur and may lead to [[Hypovolemia|hypovolemic shock]]. Almost all patients develop [[oliguria]] or [[Oliguria|anuria]] within a few hours to as late as 6 days post bite. In some cases, [[Dialysis|kidney dialysis]] is necessary due to [[acute renal failure]] (ARF), but this is not often caused by [[hypotension]]. It is more often the result of intravascular [[hemolysis]], which occurs in about half of all cases. In other cases, ARF is often caused by [[disseminated intravascular coagulation]].<ref name="Ali04" />

===Fer-de-lance===
[[File:Bothrops asper - Tortuguero1.jpg|thumb|Fer-de-lance (''Bothrops asper'')]]
The Fer-de-lance or [[Terciopelo]] (''Bothrops asper'') has been described as excitable and unpredictable when disturbed. They can, and often will, move very quickly,<ref name="C&L04">{{cite book|last=Campbell; Lamar|first=Jonathan; William|title=The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere|year=2004|publisher=Comstock Publishing Associates|location=Ithaca and London|isbn=0-8014-4141-2}}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> usually opting to flee from danger,<ref name="VRO">{{cite web|last=Sierra|title=Captive care of B.asper|url=http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/133|work=A collection of captive care notes|publisher=www.venomousreptiles.org|accessdate=6 November 2006}}</ref> but can suddenly reverse direction to vigorously defend themselves.<ref name=Mark>{{cite book|last=O'Shea|first=Mark|title=VENOMOUS SNAKES OF THE WORLD|year=first published in 2005|publisher=Princeton University Press (Princeton and Oxford)|location=USA|isbn=978-0-691-15023-9}}</ref><ref name="VRO"/> Adult specimens, when cornered and fully alert, should be considered dangerous. In a review of bites from this species suffered by field biologists, Hardy (1994) referred to it as the "ultimate pit viper".<ref name="C&L04" /> Venom yield (dry weight) averages 458&nbsp;mg, with a maximum of 1530&nbsp;mg (Bolaños, 1984)<ref name="War-C&L04">Warrell DA. 2004. Snakebites in Central and South America: Epidemiology, Clinical Features, and Clinical Management. ''In'' Campbell JA, Lamar WW. 2004. The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London. 870 pp. 1500 plates. {{ISBN|0-8014-4141-2}}.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> and an {{LD50}} in mice of 2.844&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intraperitoneal|IP]].<ref name="VRO" /> This species is an important cause of snakebite within its range. It is considered the most dangerous snake in [[Costa Rica]], responsible for 46% of all bites and 30% of all hospitalized cases; before 1947, the fatality rate was 7%, but this has since declined to almost 0% (Bolaños, 1984), mostly due to the [[Clodomiro Picado Research Institute]],<ref name="Clodomiro Picado Research Institute">{{cite web| title = Clodomiro Picado Research Institute|url = http://www.icp.ucr.ac.cr/}}</ref> responsible for the production of [[antivenom]]. In the [[Colombia]]n states of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]] and [[Chocó Department|Chocó]], it causes 50-70% of all snakebites, with a [[sequelae]] rate of 6% and a fatality rate of 5% (Otero et al., 1992). In the state of [[Lara (state)|Lara]], [[Venezuela]], it is responsible for 78% of all envenomations and all snakebite fatalities (Dao-L., 1971). One of the reasons so many people are bitten is because of its association with human habitation and many bites occur indoors (Sasa & Vázquez, 2003).

===King cobra===
[[File:Ophiophagus-hannah-kaeng-krachan-national-park.jpg|thumb|King cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah''), [[Kaeng Krachan National Park]]]]
The [[King cobra]] (''Ophiophagus hannah'') is the longest venomous snake in the world, and it can inject very high volumes of venom in a single bite. The venom {{LD50}} is 1.80&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]] according to Broad et al. (1979).<ref name="tox">[http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0048 University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resource]</ref> The mean value of subcutaneous {{LD50}} of five wild-caught king cobras in [[Southeast Asia]] was determined as 1.93&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="CRC Press">{{cite book |title=Handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons|publisher=CRC Press|volume=236|year=1995|location=USA|isbn=0-8493-4489-1}}</ref> Between 350 and 500&nbsp;mg (dry weight) of venom can be injected at once (Minton, 1974). In another study by (Broad et al., 1979), the average venom quantity was 421&nbsp;mg (dry weight of milked venom).<ref name="tox" /> The maximum venom yield is approximately 1000&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="OHVY" /> The king cobra has a fearsome reputation. When annoyed, it spreads a narrow hood and growls loudly, but some scientists claim that their aggressiveness is grossly exaggerated.<ref name="Greene">{{cite book|last=Greene|first=HW|title=Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature|year=1997|publisher=University of California Press|location=California, USA|isbn=0520224876}}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> In most of the local encounters with live, wild king cobras, the snakes appear to be of rather placid disposition, and they usually end up being killed or subdued with hardly any hysterics. These support the view that wild king cobras generally have a mild temperament, and despite their frequent occurrence in disturbed and built-up areas, are adept at avoiding humans. Naturalist Michael Wilmer Forbes Tweedie felt that "this notion is based on the general tendency to dramatise all attributes of snakes with little regard for the truth about them. A moment’s reflection shows that this must be so, for the species is not uncommon, even in populated areas, and consciously or unconsciously, people must encounter king cobras quite frequently. If the snake were really habitually aggressive records of its bite would be frequent; as it is they are extremely rare."<ref name="Tweedie">{{cite book|last=Tweedie|first=MWF|title=The Snakes of Malaya|year=1983|publisher=Singapore National Printers Ltd|location=Singapore|oclc=686366097}}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Mortality rates vary sharply depending on many factors. In cases where envenomation is severe, death can be rapid.<ref name="tox" />

===Many-banded krait===
[[File:Bungarus multicinctus.jpg|thumb|Many-banded krait (''Bungarus multicinctus'')]]
The [[Many-banded krait]] (''Bungarus multicinctus'') is the most venomous krait species known based on toxinological studies conducted on mice. The venom of the many-banded krait consists of both pre- and postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s (known as [[α-bungarotoxin]]s and [[beta-Bungarotoxin|β-bungarotoxin]]s, among others). Due to poor response to antivenom therapy, mortality rates are very high in cases of envenomation - up to 50% of cases that receive antivenom are fatal. Case fatality rates of the many-banded krait envenoming reach up to 77%–100% without treatment.<ref name=W95>{{cite book|last=White; Meier|first=Julian; Jurg|title=Handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons|year=1995|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-84-934489-3|pages=493–588}}</ref> The average venom yield from specimens kept on snake farms was between 4.6—18.4&nbsp;mg per bite.<ref name="aa">{{cite book |title= Snake of medical importance|publisher= Venom and toxins research group| location = Singapore|isbn=9971-62-217-3}}</ref> In another study, the average venom yield was 11&nbsp;mg (Sawai, 1976).<ref name="BMc">{{cite web|url=http://toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0023|title=Clinical Toxinology-''Bungarus multicinctus''}}</ref> The venom is possibly the most toxic of any ''Bungarus'' (krait) species and possibly the most toxic of any snake species in Asia, with {{LD50}} values of 0.09&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="aa" />—0.108&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]],<ref name="Bro73" /><ref name="LD50">{{cite web|url=http://www.kingsnake.com/toxinology/LD50/LD50men.html|title=LD50 menu}}</ref> 0.113&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]] and 0.08&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum#Layers|IP]] on [[mice]].<ref name="LD50" /> Based on several {{LD50}} studies, the many-banded krait is among the [[venomous snake|most venomous land snakes]] in the world.<ref name="ErZug" /> The Taiwan National Poison Control Center reports that the chief cause of deaths from snakebites during the decade (2002-2012) was respiratory failure, 80% of which was caused by bites from the many-banded krait.<ref name="Chi">{{cite journal|last=Chi|first=Wen Juan|title=Venomous Snake Bites in Taiwan|journal=Journal of Critical Care and Emergency Medicine|date=29 September 2012|volume=23|issue=4|page=98|url=http://www.seccm.org.tw/magazine/pdf/201223_0301.pdf|accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref>

===Malayan krait===
[[File:Bungar candi 120608-0343 krw.jpg|thumb|Malayan krait (''Bungarus candidus'')]]
The [[Malayan krait]] (''Bungarus candidus'') is another dangerously venomous species of krait. In [[mice]], the [[Intravenous injection|IV]] {{LD50}} for this species is 0.1&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Tan">{{cite web|last=Tan|first=Nget Hong|title=Toxins from Venoms of Poisonous Snake Indigenous to Malaysia: A Review|url=http://www.tanngethong.com/toxins_from_venoms_of_poisonous_.htm|work=Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine|publisher=University of Malaya|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> Envenomation rate among this species is very high and the untreated mortality is 70%, although even with antivenom and mechanical ventilation the mortality rate is at 50%.<ref name="BCd">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0016|quote=Mortality rate:70%}}</ref>

===Inland taipan===
[[File:Fierce Snake-Oxyuranus microlepidotus.jpg|thumb|Inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'')]]
The [[Inland taipan]] (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') is considered the most venomous snake in the world with a [[murine]] {{LD50}} value of 0.025&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]].<ref name="inchem1">{{cite web |last=White |first=Julian |title=''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/animal/taipan.htm |date=November 1991 |publisher=[[International Programme on Chemical Safety]] |accessdate=6 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="InlandT">{{cite web|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0520|title=University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|quote=Mortality rate:80%}}</ref> Ernst and Zug et al. 1996 list a value of 0.01&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]], which makes it the most venomous snake in the world in their study too. They have an average venom yield of 44&nbsp;mg.<ref name="InlandT" /> Bites from this species have a mortality rate of 80% if left untreated, although it is very rare for this species to bite. This species is known to be a very shy, reclusive and a laid-back snake that will nearly always slither away from disturbance. It is not an aggressive species and rarely strikes.No recorded incidents have been fatal since the advent of the monovalent (specific) antivenom therapy.

===Eastern brown snake===
[[File:Eastern Brown Snake - Kempsey NSW.jpg|thumb|upright|Eastern brown snake (''Pseudonaja textilis'')]]
The [[Eastern brown snake]] (''Pseudonaja textilis'') has a venom {{LD50}} value of 0.053&nbsp;mg [[Subcutis|SC]] according to (Brown, 1973) and a value of 0.0365&nbsp;mg [[Subcutis|SC]] according to (Ernst and Zug et al. 1996).<ref name="ErZug" /> According to both studies, it is the second most venomous snake in the world. Average venom yield is 2–6&nbsp;mg according to (Meier and White, 1995). According to (Minton, 1974) average venom yield (dry weight) is between 5–10&nbsp;mg.<ref name="EBS">{{cite web|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0533|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources}}</ref> Maximum venom yield for this species is 155&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Mir06" /> This species is legendary for its bad temper, aggression, and for its speed. This species is responsible for more deaths every year in Australia than any other group of snakes.<ref name="AG">{{cite web|title=Australia's 10 most dangerous snakes|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/view-image.htm?gid=11893|work=Australian Geographic|publisher=Australian Geographic|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref>

===Common death adder===
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 3990 Death Adder.jpg|thumb|Common death adder (''Acanthophis antarcticus'')]]
The [[Common death adder]] (''Acanthophis antarcticus'') is a highly venomous snake species with a 50-60% untreated mortality rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0491|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|quote=Mortality rate:50-60%}}</ref> It is also the fastest striking venomous snake in the world.<ref name="Strike">[http://www.animaldanger.com/australia.php Fastest striking snake]</ref> A death adder can go from a strike position, to strike and envenoming their prey, and back to strike position again, in less than 0.15 seconds.<ref name="Strike" /> The [[Subcutis|SC]] {{LD50}} value is 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg<ref name="Database">{{cite web|title=LD50 of venomous snakes - Ultimate species list|url=http://snakedatabase.org/pages/LD50.php|publisher=Snake Database|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> and the venom yield per bite can range anywhere from 70–236&nbsp;mg.<ref name="DAVY">{{cite web|title=Common death adder Venom Yield|url=http://snakedatabase.org/referencevenomamount/495|accessdate=21 October 2013}}</ref> Unlike other snakes that flee from approaching humans crashing through the undergrowth, common death adders are more likely to sit tight and risk being stepped on, making them more dangerous to the unwary bushwalker. They are said to be reluctant to bite unless actually touched.<ref name="DA">{{cite web|title=Australia's 10 most dangerous snakes|url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/view-image.htm?index=8&gid=11893|work=Australian Geographic|publisher=Australian Geographic|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref>

===Tiger snake===
[[File:Tiger snake 2.jpg|thumb|Tiger snake (''Notechis'' spp.)]]
[[Tiger snake]]s (''Notechis spp'') are highly venomous. Their venoms possess potent [[neurotoxin]]s, [[Coagulation|coagulant]]s, [[haemolysin]]s and [[myotoxin]]s and the venom is quick-acting with rapid onset of breathing difficulties and paralysis. The untreated mortality rate from tiger snake bites is reported to be between 40 and 60%.<ref>[http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0540 University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resource]</ref> They are a major cause of snakebites and occasional snakebite deaths in Australia.<ref name="TSB">{{cite web|title=Australian Tiger Snakes|url=http://www.toxinology.com/about/tiger_snake_snakebite.html|work=Clinical Toxinology Resources|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref>

The African Tiger snake ([[Telescopus semiannulatus]]), 60–70&nbsp;cm long, on the other hand, is [[rear-fanged]] and only mildly venomous and not dangerous to humans.

===Green mambas===
[[File:Dendroaspis viridisPCCA20051227-1885B.jpg|thumb|upright|Western green mamba (''Dendroaspis viridis'')]]
Green mambas (Western, Eastern, and Jameson's) are all highly venomous snakes that can be highly aggressive and unpredictable in disposition. They can suddenly go from a state of relative calm to an extremely agitated and dangerous state. All three species have a tendency to strike repeatedly with little provocation, although they are generally much less aggressive than their larger cousin, the Black mamba. All three species of green mamba are highly arboreal, alert, extremely quick, and agile. Although the potency of their venom is similar to the more venomous [[Naja|cobra]] species, mamba venom is much more rapid-acting and the dendrotoxins contained in mamba venom is generally more devastating in nature to the central nervous system, causing more severe neurotoxicity in more rapid fashion.<ref name="Davidson"/>

The [[Western green mamba]] (''Dendroaspis viridis'') is highly venomous and aggressive with a {{LD50}} of 0.7&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]] and the average venom yield per bite is approximately 100&nbsp;mg. The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be very high (>80%).

The [[Eastern green mamba]] (''Dendroaspis angusticeps'') has an average venom yield per bite of 80&nbsp;mg according to Engelmann and Obst (1981).<ref name="Engelmann">{{cite book|last=Engelmann|first=Wolf-Eberhard|title=Snakes: Biology, Behavior, and Relationship to Man|year=1981|publisher=Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982)|location=Leipzig; English version NY, USA|isbn=0-89673-110-3|pages=51}}</ref> The [[subcutaneous injection|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} for this species ranges from 0.40&nbsp;mg/kg to 3.05&nbsp;mg/kg depending on different toxicology studies, authority figures and estimates. The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be very high (70-75%). Generally the calmest and most shy of the green mamba species, the Eastern green will still strike repeatedly if cornered or agitated.

The [[Jameson's mamba]] (''Dendroaspis jamesoni'') is known to be quite aggressive and defensive. The average venom yield per bite for this species is 80&nbsp;mg, but some specimens may yield as much as 120&nbsp;mg in a single bite. The [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]] {{LD50}} for this species according to Brown (1973) is 1.0&nbsp;mg/kg, while the [[Intravenous therapy|IV]] {{LD50}} is 0.8&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Brown73">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=John H.|title=Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes|year=1973|publisher=Charles C. Thomas|location=Springfield, IL USA|isbn=0-398-02808-7|pages=81}}</ref> Envenomation by a Jameson's mamba can be deadly in as little as 30 to 120 minutes after being bitten, if proper medical treatment is not attained.<ref name="Davidson2">{{cite web|url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Dendroa1.htm |title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID |last=Davidson |first=Terence |publisher=University of California, San Diego |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114831/http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Dendroa1.htm |archivedate=2012-04-02 |df= }}</ref> The mortality rate of untreated bites is not exactly known, but it's said to be very high (>80%).<ref name="WCH1">[http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0169 Clinical Toxinology Resource (''Dendroaspis jamesoni'')]</ref>

===True cobras===
The [[Naja|cobras]] (''Naja spp'') are a medically important group of snakes due to the number of bites and fatalities they cause across their geographical range. The genus ''Naja'' consists of 20 to 22 [[species]], but has undergone several [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] revisions in recent years, so sources vary greatly.<ref name="ITIS">{{ITIS |id=700233 |taxon=''Naja'' |accessdate=13 April 2008}}</ref> They range throughout [[Africa]] (including some parts of the Sahara where ''Naja haje'' can be found), [[Southwest Asia]], [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[East Asia]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The most recent revision,<ref name=wallach>{{cite journal|last=Wallach|first=Van |author2=Wüster, W |author3=Broadley, Donald G.|title=In praise of subgenera: taxonomic status of cobras of the genus Naja Laurenti (Serpentes: Elapidae)|journal=Zootaxa|year=2009|volume=2236|issue=1|pages=26–36|url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2009/f/zt02236p036.pdf}}</ref> listed 28 species after the synonymisation of ''Boulengerina'' and ''Paranaja'' with ''Naja''. But unlike some other members of the family [[Elapidae]] (the species of the genus ''Bungarus'', genus ''Oxyuranus'', genus ''Pseudohaje'', and especially genus ''Dendroaspis''), half of the bites by many species of both African and Asian origin of the genus ''Naja'' are "[[dry bite]]s" (a dry bite is a bite by a venomous snake in which no venom is released). Roughly 45-50% of bites by most cobra species are dry bites and thus don't cause envenomation.<ref name=WHO-03>{{cite journal|last=Warrell|first=DA|author2=Theakston RD |author3=Griffiths E |title=Report of a WHO workshop on the standardization and control of antivenoms|journal=Toxicon|date=April 2003|volume=41|issue=5|pages=541–57|pmid=12676433|doi=10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00393-8}}</ref> Some of the species which are known and documented to deliver dry bites in a majority of cases (50% +) include: ''Naja naja'', ''Naja kaouthia'', ''Naja sputatrix'', ''Naja siamensis'', ''Naja haje'', ''Naja annulifera'', ''Naja anchietae'' and ''Naja nigricollis''. Some species will inject venom in the majority of their bites, but still deliver high number of dry bites (40-45%) include: ''Naja sumatrana'', ''Naja melanoleuca'', ''Naja atra'', ''Naja mossambica'' and ''Naja katiensis''. Within this [[genus]], there are a few species in which dry bites are very rare. Envenoming occurs in at least 75-80% of bite cases involving these species. The species which typically cause envenomation in the majority of their bites include some of the more dangerous and venomous species of this genus: ''Naja oxiana'', ''Naja philippinensis'', ''Naja nivea'', and ''Naja samarensis''. There are many more species within the genus which have not yet been subject to much research and studies, and as a result, very little is known about their behaviour, venom, diet, habitat and general temperaments. Some of these species include ''Naja sagittifera'', ''Naja annulata'', ''Naja christyi'' and many others.

====Caspian cobra====
[[File:Naja oxiana Caspian cobra in a defensive posture.jpg|thumb|Caspian cobra (''Naja oxiana'')]]
The most medically important species of snake bites in [[Central Asia]] is the [[Caspian cobra]] (''Naja oxiana''). It is the most venomous species of [[Naja|cobra]] in the world, slightly ahead of the Philippines cobra based on a toxinological study from 1992 found in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, in which this species produced the highest potency venom among cobras. The venom of this species has the most potent composition of toxins found among any [[Naja|cobra]] species known. It is made up of primarily highly potent [[neurotoxin]]s but it also has [[cytotoxin|cytotoxic]] activity (tissue-death, necrosis) and [[Cardiotoxicity|cardiotoxins]].<ref name="cytotoxins">{{cite journal |doi=10.1042/BJ20041892 |title=Cancer cell injury by cytotoxins from cobra venom is mediated through lysosomal damage |year=2005 |last1=Sharonov |first1=George V. |last2=Sharonov |first2=Alexei V. |last3=Astapova |first3=Maria V. |last4=Rodionov |first4=Dmitriy I. |last5=Utkin |first5=Yuriy N. |last6=Arseniev |first6=Alexander S. |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=390 |pages=11–8 |pmid=15847607 |issue=Pt 1 |pmc=1184559}}</ref> Two forms of "cytotoxin II" ([[cardiotoxin]]) were found in the venom of this species.<ref name="CTII">{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00478.x |title=Two forms of cytotoxin II (cardiotoxin) from Naja naja oxiana in aqueous solution . Spatial structures with tightly bound water molecules |year=1999 |last1=Dementieva |first1=Daria V. |last2=Bocharov |first2=Eduard V. |last3=Arseniev |first3=Alexander. S. |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry |volume=263 |pages=152–62 |pmid=10429199 |issue=1}}</ref> The crude venom of this species produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005&nbsp;mg/kg, the lowest among all cobra species, derived from an individual case of poisoning by [[Ventricular system|intracerebroventricular]] injection.<ref name=L&R>{{cite journal|last=Lysz|first=Thomas W.|author2=Rosenberg, Philip |title=Convulsant activity of Naja naja oxiana venom and its phospholipase A component|journal=Toxicon|date=May 1974|volume=12|issue=3|pages=253–265|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(74)90067-1|pmid=4458108}}</ref> A 1992 extensive toxinology study gave a value of 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg (range of 0.1&nbsp;mg/kg - 0.26&nbsp;mg/kg) by [[Subcutis|subcutaneous injection]].<ref name=IJEB>{{cite journal|last=Khare|first=AD|author2=Khole V |author3=Gade PR |title=Toxicities, LD50 prediction and in vivo neutralisation of some elapid and viperid venoms|journal=Indian Journal of Experimental Biology|date=December 1992|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1158–62|pmid=1294479}}</ref> According to Brown (1973), the [[Subcutis|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} value is 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg,<ref name="Bro73" /> while Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' list a value of 0.21&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]] and 0.037&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous injection|IV]].<ref name="ErZug" /> Latifi (1984) listed a subcutaneous value of 0.2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Latifi84"/> In another study, where venom was collected from a number of specimens in Iran, the [[intravenous injection|IV]] {{LD50}} in lab mice was 0.078&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=Iran>{{cite journal|last=Akbari|first=A|author2=Rabiei , H.|author3=Hedayat, A.|author4=Mohammadpour, N.|author5=Zolfagharian, H.|author6=Teimorzadeh, Sh.|title=Production of effective antivenin to treat cobra snake (Naja naja oxiana) envenoming|journal=Archives of [[Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute]]|date=June 2010|volume=65|issue=1|pages=33–37|url=http://rockyourpaper.org/article/production-of-effective-antivenin-to-treat-cobra-snake-naja-naja-oxiana-envenoming-887be8012ae6d7d5cbc366419e6afe8c|accessdate=7 December 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212151340/http://rockyourpaper.org/article/production-of-effective-antivenin-to-treat-cobra-snake-naja-naja-oxiana-envenoming-887be8012ae6d7d5cbc366419e6afe8c|archivedate=12 December 2013|df=}}</ref> Average venom yield per bite for this species is between 75 and 125&nbsp;mg (dry weight),<ref name="no">{{cite web|title=Naja oxiana|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0042|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide}}</ref> but it may yield up to 590&nbsp;mg (dry weight) in a single bite.<ref name="Latifi84">{{cite journal|last=Latifi|first=M|title=Variation in yield and lethality of venoms from Iranian snakes|journal=Toxicon|year=1984|volume=22|issue=3|pages=373–380|pmid=6474490|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(84)90081-3}}</ref> The bite of this species may cause severe pain and swelling, along with severe neurotoxicity. Weakness, drowsiness, ataxia, hypotension, and paralysis of throat and limbs may appear in less than one hour after the bite. Without medical treatment, symptoms rapidly worsen and death can occur rapidly after a bite due to respiratory failure. An adult woman bitten by this species in northwestern Pakistan suffered severe neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation. Between 1979 and 1987, 136 confirmed bites were attributed to this species in the former [[Soviet Union]]. Of the 136, 121 received antivenom, and only four died. Of the 15 who did not receive antivenom, 11 died. This species is an abundant snake in northeastern Iran and is responsible for a very large number of snakebite mortalities.<ref name=L84>{{cite book|last=Latifi|first=Mahmoud|title=Snakes of Iran|year=1984|publisher=Society for the Study of Amphibians & Reptiles|isbn=978-0-91-698422-9}}</ref> Antivenom is not as effective for envenomation by this species as it is for other Asiatic cobras within the same region, like the Indian cobra (''Naja naja'') and due to the dangerous toxicity of this species' venom, massive amounts of antivenom are often required for patients. As a result, a monovalent antivenom serum is being developed by the [[Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute]] in Iran.<ref name=Iran/> The untreated mortality rate for this species is 70-75%, which is the highest among all cobra species of the genus ''Naja''.<ref name="medsnakes">{{cite book|last=Gopalkrishnakone, Chou|first=P., LM|title=Snakes of Medical Importance (Asia-Pacific Region)|year=1990|publisher=National University of Singapore|location=Singapore|isbn=9971-62-217-3}}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref>

====Forest cobra====
[[File:Forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca), Kakamega Forest, Kenya.jpg|thumb|upright|Forest cobra (''Naja melanoleuca''), Kakamega Forest, Kenya]]
The [[Forest cobra]] (''Naja melanoleuca'') is the largest true cobra of the genus ''Naja'' and is a very bad-tempered, aggressive, and irritable snake when cornered or molested as handled in captivity.<ref name=Mark/> According to Brown (1973) this species has a [[murine]] [[intraperitoneal|IP]] {{LD50}} value of 0.324&nbsp;mg/kg, while the [[intravenous injection|IV]] {{LD50}} value is 0.6&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Bro73" /> Ernst and Zug ''et al.'' 1996 list a value of 0.225&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]].<ref name="ErZug" /><ref name=M67>{{cite journal|last=Minton|first=SA|title=Paraspecific protection by elapid and sea snake antivenins|journal=Toxicon|year=1967|volume=5|issue=1|pages=47–55|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(67)90118-3}}</ref> The average venom yield per bite is 571&nbsp;mg and the maximum venom yield is 1102&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Mir06">{{cite journal|last=Mirtschin|first=Peter J.|author2=Nathan Dunstan |author3=Ben Hough |author4=Ewan Hamilton |author5=Sharna Klein |author6=Jonathan Lucas |author7=David Millar |author8=Frank Madaras |author9=Timothy Nias |title=Venom yields from Australian and some other species of snakes|journal=Ecotoxicology|date=26 August 2006|volume=15|issue=6|pages=531–538|doi=10.1007/s10646-006-0089-x|url=http://www.venomsupplies.com/assets/published-paper.pdf|accessdate=6 November 2013}}</ref> The forest cobra is one of the least frequent causes of snake bite among the African cobras, this is largely due to its forest-dwelling habits. It is the largest of the ''Naja'' cobras and the venom is considered highly toxic. If the snake becomes cornered or is agitated, it can quickly attack the aggressor, and if a large amount of venom is injected, a rapidly fatal outcome is possible. Clinical experience with forest cobras has been very sparse, and few recorded bites have been documented. However, in 2008, around the area of [[Friguiagbé]] in [[Guinea]], there were 375 bites attributed to the forest cobra and of those 79 were fatal. Most of the fatal bites were patients who received no medical treatment.<ref name="WHOafrica">{{cite web|last=Warrell|first=David A.|title=Guidelines for the Prevention and Clinical Management of Snakebite in Africa|url=http://www.afro.who.int/en/clusters-a-programmes/hss/essential-medicines/highlights/2731-guidelines-for-the-prevention-and-clinical-management-of-snakebite-in-africa.html|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref> Deaths from respiratory failure have been reported, but most victims will survive if prompt administration of antivenom is undertaken as soon as clinical signs of envenomation have been noted.<ref>{{cite web|title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID for bites by Forest Cobra (Naja melanoleuca)|url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Naja1.htm|accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref>

====Philippine cobra====
[[File:Naja philippinensis.png|thumb|Philippine cobra (''naga philippinensis'')]]
The [[Philippine cobra]] (''Naga philippinensis'') is one of the most venomous cobra species in the world based on [[murine]] {{LD50}} studies. The average [[Subcutis|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} for this species is 0.20&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Bro73"/> The lowest {{LD50}} reported value for this snake is 0.14&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]], while the highest is 0.48&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]].<ref name=NP>{{cite journal|last=Watt|first=G|author2=Theakston RD |author3=Hayes CG |author4=Yambao ML |author5=Sangalang R |title=Positive response to edrophonium in patients with neurotoxic envenoming by cobras (Naja naja philippinensis). A placebo-controlled study|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=4 December 1986|volume=315|issue=23|pages=1444–8|pmid=3537783|doi=10.1056/NEJM198612043152303|display-authors=etal}}</ref> and the average venom yield per bite is 90–100&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Bro73" /> The [[Venom (poison)|venom]] of the Philippine cobra is a potent postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]] which affects respiratory function and can cause [[neurotoxicity]] and respiratory paralysis, as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals by binding to the neuromuscular junctions near the muscles. Research has shown its venom is purely a neurotoxin, with no apparent necrotizing components and no [[cardiotoxicity|cardiotoxins]]. These snakes are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to 3 metres (9.8&nbsp;ft) away. Bites from this species produce prominent neurotoxicity and are considered especially dangerous. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases and was the predominant clinical feature. Complete Respiratory failure developed in 19 patients, and was often rapid in onset; in three cases, apnea occurred within just 30 minutes of the bite. There were two deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all. Both cardiotoxicity and reliable nonspecific signs of envenoming were absent. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce a distinctive clinical picture characterized by severe neurotoxicity of rapid onset and minimal local tissue damage.<ref name="Toxicity">{{cite journal|last1=Watt|first1=G|last2=Padre|first2=L|last3=Tuazon|first3=L|last4=Theakston|first4=RD|last5=Laughlin|first5=L|date=|year=1988|title=Bites by the Philippine cobra (''NAga Naga philippinensis''): Prominent neurotoxicity with minimal local signs|url=|journal=The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene|volume=39|issue=3|pages=306–11|pmid=3177741|via=|doi=10.4269/ajtmh.1988.39.306}}</ref>

====Cape cobra====
[[File:Naja nivea.jpg|thumb|upright|Cape cobra (''Naja nivea'')]]
The Cape cobra (''Naja nivea'') is regarded as one of the most dangerous species of cobra in Africa, by virtue of its potent venom and frequent occurrence around houses.<ref name=mh1>{{cite web|last=Morgan, Haagner|first=Dave, Gerald|title=Husbandry and Propagation of the Cape cobra (''Naja nivea'') at the Manyeleti Reptile Centre (pg 1)|url=http://i.imgur.com/kqaQA.jpg|publisher=The Journal of Herpetological Association of Africa|accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref> The venom of this snake tends to be thick and syrupy in consistency and dries into shiny pale flakes, not unlike yellow sugar. The Cape cobras venom is made up of potent postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s and might also contain [[cardiotoxin]]s,<ref name=WCH2>{{cite web|title=''Naja nivea'': General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0186|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=25 February 2012}}</ref> that affect the [[respiratory system]], [[nervous system]], and the [[heart]]. The mouse [[Subcutis|SC]] {{LD50}} for this species' venom is 0.72,<ref name=Brown73/> while the [[Intravenous therapy|IV]] and [[Intraperitoneal injection|IP]] {{LD50}} values are 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg and 0.6&nbsp;mg/kg, respectively.<ref name="Brown73"/> The average venom yield per bite is 100 to 150&nbsp;mg according to Minton. The mortality rate for untreated bites is not exactly known, but is thought to be high.{{by whom|date=October 2016}} This can be because of various factors including the amount of venom injected, psychological state of the bitten subject and the penetration of one or both fangs. Mechanical ventilation and symptom management is often enough to save a victim's life, but cases of serious Cape cobra envenomation will require antivenom.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} When death does occur, it normally takes anywhere from an hour (in severe cases) to ten hours (or more) and it is often as a result of respiratory failure, because of the onset of paralysis.<ref name=WCH2/> The antivenom used in case of a bite is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute of Medical Research (SAIMR).<ref name=davidson3>{{cite web|last=Davidson |first=Terence |title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID For bites by Cape Cobra (''Naja nivea'') |url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Naja3.htm |work=Snakebite Protocol |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=27 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114841/http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Naja3.htm |archivedate=2 April 2012 |df= }}</ref>

==Considerably dangerous==
===Jararaca ===
[[File:Bothrops jararaca 1.jpg|thumb|Jararaca (''Bothrops jararaca'')]]
The [[Bothrops jararaca|Jararaca]] (''Bothrops jararaca'') is a species that is often abundant within its range, where it is an important cause of snakebite.<ref name="C&L04" /> It is the best-known venomous snake in the wealthy and heavily populated areas of southeastern [[Brazil]], where it was responsible for 52% (3,446 cases) of snakebites between 1902 and 1945, with a 0.7% mortality rate (25 deaths).<ref name="War-C&L04" /> The average venom yield is {{convert|25|-|26|mg}} with a maximum of {{convert|300| mg}} of dried venom. The venom is slightly more toxic than that of the terciopelo or fer-de-lance (''B. asper''). In mice, the median lethal dose ({{LD50}}) is 1.2-1.3&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]], 1.4&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum#Intraperitoneal|IP]] and 3.0&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]]. For humans, the LD<span style="font-size:100%;"><sub>50</sub></span> is estimated to be {{convert|210|mg}} subcutaneous.<ref name="Bro73">{{cite book | author = Brown JH | year = 1973 | title = Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes | location = Springfield, IL | publisher = Thomas | lccn = 73000229 | isbn = 0-398-02808-7 }}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref>

===South American bushmaster===
[[File:Lachesis muta muta.jpg|thumb|South American bushmaster (''Lachesis muta muta'')]]
The [[Lachesis muta muta|South American bushmaster]] (''Lachesis muta muta'') is the longest species of venomous snake in the [[Western Hemisphere]] and the longest [[pit viper]] in the world. It is native to parts of [[South America]], especially the equatorial forests east of the [[Andes]]. They are active at dusk or after dark and so they are very secretive and elusive. This species is large, fast and has a reputation for being particularly aggressive when cornered.<ref name="F&C">{{cite book|last=Fowler, Cubas|first=ME, ZS|title=Biology, Medicine, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals|year=2001|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |edition=1st |isbn=0813828465|page=42}}</ref><ref name="B&B">{{cite book|last=Bartlett, Bartlett|first=Richard, Patricia|title=Reptiles and Amphibians of the Amazon: An Ecotourist's Guide|year=2003|publisher=University Press of Florida|location=USA|isbn=0813026237}}</ref> Some reports suggest that this species produces a large amount of venom that is weak compared to some other vipers.<ref name="SAP">[http://www.southamericanpictures.com/features/feat18/lachesis.htm ''Lachesis muta'', The Silent Fate] at [http://www.southamericanpictures.com/ South American Pictures]. Accessed 26 October 2013.</ref> Others, however, suggest that such conclusions may not be accurate. These animals are badly affected by stress and rarely live long in captivity. This makes it difficult to obtain venom in useful quantities and good condition for study purposes. For example, Bolaños (1972) observed that venom yield from his specimens fell from 233&nbsp;mg to 64&nbsp;mg while they remained in his care. As the stress of being milked regularly has this effect on venom yield, it is reasoned that it may also affect venom toxicity. This may explain the disparity described by Hardy and Haad (1998) between the low laboratory toxicity of the venom and the high mortality rate of bite victims.<ref name="RIP">Ripa, D. 2001. [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/61 Bushmasters and the Heat Strike] at [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/ VenomousReptiles.org]. Accessed 26 October 2013.</ref> However, wild specimens have an average venom yield per bite of 280–450&nbsp;mg (dry weight) (U.S. Dept. Navy, 1968). According to (Sanchez et al., 1992), who used wild specimens from [[Pará|Pará, Brazil]], the average venom yield per bite was 324&nbsp;mg, with a range of 168–552&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="lmuta">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0356}}</ref> Brown (1973) gives the following {{LD50}} values for mice: 1.5&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous|IV]], 1.6–6.2&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum|IP]], 6.0&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]]. He also notes a venom yield of 200–411&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Bro73" /> Human envenoming by this species, although infrequent, can be rather severe due to the large volumes of venom injected. Envenomation is characterized by pronounced local tissue damage and systemic dysfunctions, including massive internal bleeding.<ref name="Tox">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.014 |title=Cytotoxicity of Lachesis muta muta snake (bushmaster) venom and its purified basic phospholipase A2 (LmTX-I) in cultured cells |year=2007 |last1=Damico |first1=Daniela C.S. |last2=Nascimento |first2=Juliana Minardi |last3=Lomonte |first3=Bruno |last4=Ponce-Soto |first4=Luis A. |last5=Joazeiro |first5=Paulo P. |last6=Novello |first6=José Camillo |last7=Marangoni |first7=Sérgio |last8=Collares-Buzato |first8=Carla B. |journal=Toxicon |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=678–92 |pmid=17208264}}</ref>

===Gaboon viper===
[[File:GaboonViper.jpg|thumb|Gaboon viper (''Bitis gabonica'')]]
The [[Gaboon viper]] (''Bitis gabonica''), although generally docile and sluggish, has the longest fangs of any venomous snake and their venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any [[venomous snake]]. Yield is probably related to body weight, as opposed to milking interval.<ref name="Mal03">Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. ''True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers''. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. {{ISBN|0-89464-877-2}}.</ref> Brown (1973) gives a venom yield range of 200–1000&nbsp;mg (of dried venom),<ref name="Bro73"/> A range of 200–600&nbsp;mg for specimens 125–155&nbsp;cm in length has also been reported.<ref name="Mal03" /> Spawls and Branch (1995) state from 5 to 7&nbsp;ml (450–600&nbsp;mg) of venom may be injected in a single bite.<ref name="SB95">Spawls S, [[William Roy Branch|Branch B]]. 1995. ''The Dangerous Snakes of Africa''. Ralph Curtis Books. Dubai: Oriental Press. 192 pp. {{ISBN|0-88359-029-8}}.</ref> Based on how sensitive [[monkey]]s were to the venom, Whaler (1971) estimated 14&nbsp;mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being: equivalent to 0.06 ml of venom, or 1/50 to 1/1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking. Marsh and Whaler (1984) wrote that 35&nbsp;mg (1/30 of the average venom yield) would be enough to kill a man of {{convert|70|kg|lb}}.<ref name="Mal03" /> A study by Marsh and Whaler (1984) reported a maximum yield of 9.7 ml of wet venom, which translated to 2400&nbsp;mg of dried venom. They attached [[Crocodile clip|"alligator" clip electrodes]] to the angle of the open jaw of [[Anesthesia|anesthetized]] specimens (length 133–136&nbsp;cm, girth 23–25&nbsp;cm, weight 1.3–3.4&nbsp;kg), yielding 1.3–7.6 ml (mean 4.4 ml) of venom. Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands. The snakes used for the study were milked seven to 11 times over a 12-month period, during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same.<ref name="Mal03" /> In addition, Gaboon vipers produce the most painful bite of any venomous snake in the world. A bite causes very rapid and conspicuous [[Swelling (medical)|swelling]], intense [[pain]], severe [[Shock (circulatory)|shock]] and local [[blister]]ing. Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements, [[defecation]], [[urination]], swelling of the tongue and eyelids, [[Seizure|convulsions]] and [[unconsciousness]].<ref name="Mal03" /> Blistering, [[Bruise|bruising]] and [[necrosis]] is often very extensive. There may be sudden [[hypotension]], heart damage and [[Dyspnea|dyspnoea]].<ref name="Spa04" /> The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to [[haematuria]] and [[haematemesis]].<ref name="SB95" /><ref name="Spa04">Spawls S, Howell K, Drewes R, Ashe J. 2004. ''A Field Guide To The Reptiles Of East Africa''. London: A & C Black Publishers Ltd. 543 pp. {{ISBN|0-7136-6817-2}}.</ref> Local tissue damage may require surgical [[Surgery|excision]] and possibly [[amputation]].<ref name="SB95" /> Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon.<ref name="Spa04" />

===True cobras===
====Chinese cobra====
[[File:Naja atra (03).jpg|thumb|Chinese cobra (''Naja atra'')]]
The [[Chinese cobra]] (''Naja atra'') is a highly venomous member of the true cobras (genus ''Naja''). Its venom consists mainly of postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s and [[cardiotoxin]]s. Four cardiotoxin-analogues I, II, III, and IV, account for about 54% of the dry weight of the crude venom and have [[cytotoxin|cytotoxic]] properties.<ref name="JBC">{{cite journal |pmid=7263715 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7263715 |title=Crystallographic studies of snake venom proteins from Taiwan cobra (Naja nana atra). Cardiotoxin-analogue III and phospholipase A2 |year=1981 |author1=A H Wang |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=256 |issue=17 |pages=9279–82 |last2=Yang |first2=CC}}</ref> The {{LD50}} values of its venom in [[mice]] are 0.29&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]],<ref name="Engelmann"/>{{rp|53}} and 0.29<ref name= "LD50"/>—0.53&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]].<ref name="si">{{cite book |title= Snake of medical importance|publisher= Venom and toxins research group| location = Singapore|isbn= 9971-62-217-3|url=http://i55.tinypic.com/21jvc7p.jpg}}</ref> The average venom yield from a snake of this species kept at a snake farm was about 250.8&nbsp;mg (80&nbsp;mg dry weight).<ref name="si" /> According to Minton (1974), this cobra has a venom yield range of 150 to 200&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0039|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources}}</ref> Brown listed a venom yield of 184&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="Bro73" /> It is one of the most prevalent [[venomous snakes]] in [[mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], which has caused many snakebite incidents to humans.

====Monocled cobra====
[[File:NajaKaouthia.jpg|thumb|upright|Monocled cobra (''Naja kaouthia'')]]
The Asian [[Monocled cobra]] (''Naja kaouthia'') is a medically important species as it is responsible for a considerable amount of bites throughout its range. The major toxic components in the Monocled cobras [[venom]] are postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s, which block the nerve transmission by binding specifically to the [[nicotinic]] [[acetylcholine receptor]], leading to flaccid [[paralysis]] and even death by respiratory failure. The major α-neurotoxin in ''Naja kaouthia'' venom is a long neurotoxin, α-[[cobratoxin]]; the minor α-neurotoxin is different from cobrotoxin in one [[Residue (chemistry)|residue]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12897961 |year=2003 |last1=Wei |first1=JF |last2=Lü |first2=QM |last3=Jin |first3=Y |last4=Li |first4=DS |last5=Xiong |first5=YL |last6=Wang |first6=WY |title=Alpha-neurotoxins of Naja atra and Naja kaouthia snakes in different regions |volume=35 |issue=8 |pages=683–8 |journal=Sheng wu hua xue yu sheng wu wu li xue bao Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica}}</ref> The neurotoxins of this particular species are weak.<ref name="WeakToxin">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.09.014 |title=Weak neurotoxin from Naja kaouthia cobra venom affects haemodynamic regulation by acting on acetylcholine receptors |year=2005 |last1=Ogay |first1=Alexey Ya. |last2=Rzhevsky |first2=Dmitry I. |last3=Murashev |first3=Arkady N. |last4=Tsetlin |first4=Victor I. |last5=Utkin |first5=Yuri N. |journal=Toxicon |volume=45 |pages=93–9 |pmid=15581687 |issue=1}}</ref> The venom of this species also contains [[myotoxin]]s and [[cardiotoxin]]s.<ref name="Mahanta">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00373-1 |title=Neutralisation of lethality, myotoxicity and toxic enzymes of Naja kaouthia venom by Mimosa pudica root extracts |year=2001 |last1=Mahanta |first1=Monimala |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Ashis Kumar |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=75 |pages=55–60 |pmid=11282444 |issue=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(91)90005-C |title=Effects of a cardiotoxin from Naja naja kaouthia venom on skeletal muscle: Involvement of calcium-induced calcium release, sodium ion currents and phospholipases A2 and C |year=1991 |last1=Fletcher |first1=Jeffrey E. |last2=Jiang |first2=Ming-Shi |last3=Gong |first3=Qi-Hua |last4=Yudkowsky |first4=Michelle L. |last5=Wieland |first5=Steven J. |journal=Toxicon |volume=29 |issue=12 |pages=1489–500 |pmid=1666202}}</ref> The median lethal dose ({{LD50}}) is 0.28-0.33&nbsp;mg per gram of mouse body weight.<ref name="chanhome11">Chanhome, L., Cox, M. J., Vasaruchaponga, T., Chaiyabutra, N. Sitprija, V. (2011). [http://abm.digitaljournals.org/index.php/abm/article/view/658 ''Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand'']. Asian Biomedicine 5 (3): 311–328.</ref> In case of [[Intravenous injection|IV]] the {{LD50}} is 0.373&nbsp;mg/kg, and 0.225&nbsp;mg/kg in case of [[intraperitoneal injection|IP]]. The average venom yield per bite is approximately 263&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="Bro73" /> The monocled cobra causes the highest fatality due to snake venom poisoning in Thailand.<ref name="Thai">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0264-410X(97)00098-4 |title=Production of highly potent horse antivenom against the Thai cobra (Naja kaouthia) |year=1997 |last1=Pratanaphon |first1=Ronachai |last2=Akesowan |first2=Surasak |last3=Khow |first3=Orawan |last4=Sriprapat |first4=Supod |last5=Ratanabanangkoon |first5=Kavi |journal=Vaccine |volume=15 |issue=14 |pages=1523–8 |pmid=9330463}}</ref>
[[Envenomation]] usually presents predominantly with extensive local [[necrosis]] and systemic manifestations to a lesser degree. Drowsiness, neurological and neuromuscular symptoms will usually manifest earliest; [[hypotension]], flushing of the face, warm skin, and pain around bite site typically manifest within one to four hours following the bite; [[paralysis]], ventilatory failure or death could ensue rapidly, possibly as early as 60 minutes in very severe cases of envenomation. However, the presence of fang marks does not always imply that envenomation actually occurred.<ref name="Davidson4">{{cite web |author=Davidson, T. |url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Naja.htm |title=Snakebite Protocols: Summary for Human Bite by Monocellate Cobra (''Naja naja kaouthia'')}}</ref>

====Egyptian cobra====
[[File:L14cobra.jpg|thumb|Egyptian cobra (''Naja haje'')]]
The [[Egyptian cobra]] (''Naja haje'') is another species of cobra which causes a significant amount of bites and human fatalities throughout its range. The venom of the Egyptian cobra consists mainly of [[neurotoxin]]s and [[cytotoxin]]s.<ref name="toxins">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12612.x |title=Naja haje haje (Egyptian cobra) Venom. Some Properties and the Complete Primary Structure of Three Toxins (CM-2, CM-11 and CM-12) |year=1978 |last1=Joubert |first1=Francois J. |last2=Taljaard |first2=Nico |journal=European Journal of Biochemistry |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=359–67 |pmid=710433}}</ref> The average venom yield is 175 to 300&nbsp;mg in a single bite, and the [[Mouse|murine]] [[Subcutis|subcutaneous]] {{LD50}} value is 1.15&nbsp;mg/kg. This species has large fangs and can produce large quantities of venom. Envenomation by this snake is a very serious medical emergency.<ref name="Bro73" />

====Water cobras====
[[File:Boulengerina annulata 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Banded water cobra (''Naja annulata'')]]
The water cobras found in central and western Africa are an extremely venomous cobra species (''Naja''). These species were formerly under the genus ''Boulengerina''. The [[banded water cobra]] (''Naja annulata'') and the [[Congo water cobra]] (''Naja christyi'') are dangerously venomous. The banded water cobra has one subspecies which is known as Storms water cobra (''Naja annulata stormsi''). Their venoms are extremely potent neurotoxins. A toxicological study listed the intraperitoneal (IP) {{LD50}} of ''N. annulata'' at 0.143&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Toxicon">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(91)90118-B |title=Lethal toxins and cross-neutralization of venoms from the African water cobras, Boulengerina annulata annulata and Boulengerina christyi |year=1991 |last1=Weinstein |first1=Scott A. |last2=Schmidt |first2=James J. |last3=Smith |first3=Leonard A. |journal=Toxicon |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1315–27 |pmid=1814007}}</ref> Brown (1973) listed the intravenous LD<sub>50</sub> for ''N. a. annulata'' at 0.2&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Bro73" /> The same study listed the intraperitoneal (IP) {{LD50}} of ''N. christyi'' at 0.12&nbsp;mg/kg. The venoms of these little-known [[Elapidae|elapids]] have the lowest intraperitoneal LD<sub>50</sub> of any ''Naja'' species studied thus far and have high concentrations of potent postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s.<ref name="Toxicon" /> Serious and dangerous envenomation can result from a bite from either of these snakes. There is at least one case of human envenomation caused by the Congo water cobra (''N. christyi''). Symptoms of the envenomation were mild. There is no specific antivenom currently produced for either of these two species.<ref name="NaNc">{{cite web|title=Venomous Animals - Boulengerina annulata and Boulengerina christyi|url=http://www.afpmb.org/content/venomous-animals-b#Boulengerinaannulata|work=Armed Forces Pest Management Board|publisher=United States Army|accessdate=24 October 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109073532/http://www.afpmb.org/content/venomous-animals-b#Boulengerinaannulata|archivedate=9 January 2012|df=}}</ref>

====Black desert cobra====
[[File:Sinai-Desert-Cobra.jpg|thumb|Black desert cobra (''Walterinnesia aegyptia'')]]
The [[Walterinnesia aegyptia|Black desert cobra]] (''Walterinnesia aegyptia'') is a highly venomous snake found in the [[Middle East]]. The subcutaneous {{LD50}} for the venom of this species is 0.4&nbsp;mg/kg. For comparison, the [[Indian cobra]]'s (''naja naja'') subcutaneous {{LD50}} is 0.80&nbsp;mg/kg, while the [[Cape cobra]]'s (''naja nivea'') subcutaneous {{LD50}} is 0.72&nbsp;mg/kg. This makes the black desert cobra a more venomous species than both.<ref name="Bro73" /> The venom is strongly [[Neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]] and also has mild hemotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes some combination of local pain, swelling, fever, general weakness, headache, & vomiting. This is not a typically aggressive snake, but it will strike and hiss loudly when provoked. It can strike at a distance of ⅔ of its body length. It does not usually spread a hood nor hold up its body up off the ground like [[Naja|true cobras]] do. Envenomation by this species should be considered a serious medical emergency. Reports of human fatalities due to envenomation by this species has been reported.<ref name="WE">{{cite web|title=Venomous Animals - Walterinnesia aegyptia|url=http://www.afpmb.org/content/venomous-animals-wxyz#Walterinnesiaaegyptia|work=Armed Forces Pest Management Board|publisher=United States Army|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref>

===Spitting cobras===
[[File:Naja pallida.jpg|thumb|Red spitting cobra (''Naja pallida''), juvenile]]
[[Spitting cobra]]s are another group of cobras that belong to the genus ''Naja''. Spitting cobras can be found in both Africa and Asia. These cobras have the ability to eject venom from their fangs when defending themselves against predators. The sprayed venom is harmless to intact skin. However, it can cause permanent blindness if introduced to the eye and left untreated (causing chemosis and corneal swelling). The venom sprays out in distinctive geometric patterns, using muscular contractions upon the venom glands. These muscles squeeze the glands and force the venom out through forward-facing holes at the tips of the fangs.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1242/jeb.01170 |title=The buccal buckle: The functional morphology of venom spitting in cobras |year=2004 |last1=Young |first1=B. A. |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=207 |issue=20 |pages=3483–94 |pmid=15339944}}</ref> The explanation that a large gust of air is expelled from the lung to propel the venom forward has been proven wrong.<ref>{{Cite journal
|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb02743.x
|title=On the 'spitting' behaviour in cobras (Serpentes: Elapidae)
|year=1995
|last1=Rasmussen
|first1=Sara
|last2=Young
|first2=B.
|last3=Krimm
|first3=Heather
|journal=Journal of Zoology
|volume=237
|pages=27–35
|issue=1}}</ref> When cornered, some species can "spit" their venom a distance as great as {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr =on}}. While spitting is typically their primary form of defense, all spitting cobras are capable of delivering venom through a bite as well. Most species' venom exhibit significant [[hemotoxin|hemotoxic]] effects, along with more typical [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] effects of other cobra species.

====Samar cobra====
[[File:Naja samarensis.jpg|thumb|upright|Samar cobra (''Naja samarensis'')]]
The [[Samar cobra]] (''Naja samarensis'') is a highly venomous species of spitting cobra that is found in the southern islands of the Philippines. Although it is a spitting cobra, this species only rarely spits its venom.<ref name="Nsamarensis" /> It is considered to be an extremely aggressive snake that strikes with little provocation. The venom of this species is not well studied, but is known to be an extremely potent postsynaptic neurotoxin that also contains cytotoxic agents.<ref name="MedTox">{{cite book|last=Dart|first=Richard C|title=Medical Toxicology|year=2003|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 3 edition|location=USA|isbn=0-7817-2845-2|pages=1569}}</ref> According to Ernst & Zug et al. the murine [[Subcutis|SC]] {{LD50}} value is 0.21&nbsp;mg/kg,<ref name=M67/> making it one of the most venomous true cobra species (genus ''Naja'') in the world. Severe envenomation is likely in case of a bite and envenomation rate is high. The untreated mortality rate is not known, but is thought to be high (~60%). Envenomation results in marked local effects such as pain, severe swelling, bruising, blistering, and [[necrosis]]. Other effects include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, [[diarrhea]], dizziness, collapse or [[convulsion]]s. There may also be moderate to severe [[flaccid paralysis]] and [[Renal failure|renal damage]]. [[Cardiotoxicity]] is possible, but rare.<ref name="Nsamarensis">{{cite web|title= ''Naja samarensis''|work=University of Adelaide|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0044}}</ref><ref name="W&T">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01945429 |title=Asiatic cobras: Systematics and snakebite |year=1991 |last1=Wüster |first1=W. |last2=Thorpe |first2=R. S. |journal=Experientia |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=205–9 |pmid=2001726}}</ref>

====Indochinese spitting cobra====
[[File:Naja siamensis by Danny S..jpg|thumb|upright|Indochinese spitting cobra (''Naja siamensis'')]]
The [[Indochinese spitting cobra]] (''Naja siamensis'') is a venomous spitting cobra whose venom consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins, metalloproteinases, powerful cardiotoxins, with cytolytic activity, and Phospholipase A<sub>2</sub> with a diversity of activities. The {{LD50}} of its venom is 1.07-1.42&nbsp;mg/gram of [[mouse]] body weight.<ref name="chanhome11" /> Cranial palsy and respiratory depression are reported to be more common after bites by Naja siamensis than by Naja kaouthia. Indochinese spitting cobras will use their venom for self-defense with little provocation, and as the name implies, are capable of spitting venom when alarmed, often at the face and eyes of the animal or human threatening them. A case report in the literature describes pain and irritation of the eyes, bilateral redness, excessive tear production and whitish discharge, with superficial corneal opacity but normal acuity.<ref name="WJO">{{cite web|last=Williams, Jensen, O'Shea|first=David J., Simon D., Mark|title=Snake Management in Cambodia|url=http://garudam.info/files/WHO2009-Cambodia.pdf|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref>

====Black-necked spitting cobra====
[[File:Naja nigricollis (Warren Klein).jpg|thumb|upright|Black-necked spitting cobra (''Naja nigricollis'')]]
The [[Black-necked spitting cobra]] (''Naja nigricollis'') is a species of spitting cobra found mostly in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. They possess medically significant [[venom]], although the mortality rate for untreated bites on humans is relatively low (~5-10%). Like other [[spitting cobras]], this species is known for its ability to project [[venom]] at a potential threat. The venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes. If it enters the eyes, symptoms include extreme burning pain, loss of coordination, partial loss of vision and permanent blindness. ''N. nigricollis'' is known for its tendency to liberally spit venom with only the slightest provocation. However, this aggressiveness is counterbalanced by it being less prone to bite than other related species.<ref name="WCH3">{{cite web|title=Naja nigricollis - General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0185|work=WCH Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide}}</ref><ref name="SB95" /> The venom of the black-necked spitting cobra is somewhat unique among elapids in that it consists primarily of [[cytotoxin]]s,<ref name="Marais">{{cite book|last=Marais|first=Johan|title=A Complete Guide to the Snakes of Southern Africa|year=2004|publisher=Struik Nature|location=Cape Town, South Africa|isbn=1-86872-932-X}}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> but with other components also. It retains the typical [[elapid]] [[neurotoxic]] properties while combining these with highly potent [[cytotoxins]] ([[Necrosis|necrotic agents]])<ref name="cytotoxins2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0024-3205(87)90126-3 |title=Cytotoxic activity of various snake venoms on melanoma, B16F10 and chondrosarcoma |year=1987 |last1=Chaim-Matyas |first1=Adina |last2=Ovadia |first2=Michael |journal=Life Sciences |volume=40 |issue=16 |pages=1601–7 |pmid=3561167}}</ref> and [[cardiotoxin]]s.<ref name="Cardiotoxins">{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/bi00684a012 |title=Complete covalent structure of a cardiotoxin from the venom of Naja nigricollis (African black-necked spitting cobra) |year=1975 |last1=Fryklund |first1=Linda |last2=Eaker |first2=David |journal=Biochemistry |volume=14 |issue=13 |pages=2865–71 |pmid=1148181}}</ref> Bite symptoms include severe external [[hemorrhaging]] and tissue [[necrosis]] around the bite area and difficulty breathing. Although mortality rate in untreated cases is low (~5-10%),<ref name="Snakebite">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61754-2 |title=Snake bite |year=2010 |last1=Warrell |first1=David A |journal=The Lancet |volume=375 |issue=9708 |pages=77–88}}</ref> when death occurs it is usually due to asphyxiation by paralysis of the [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]]. The {{LD50}} of this species is 2&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]] and 1.15&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]]. The average venom yield per bite of this species is 200 to 350&nbsp;mg (dry weight) according to Minton (1974).<ref name="WCH3" />

====Mozambique spitting cobra====
[[File:Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica).jpg|thumb|Mozambique spitting cobra (''Naja mossambica'')]]
Another medically important African spitting cobra is the [[Mozambique spitting cobra]] (''Naja mossambica''). This species is considered irritable and highly aggressive. The Mozambique spitting cobra is responsible for a significant amount of bites{{clarify|date=October 2016}} throughout its range, but most are not fatal. The venom is both neurotoxic and cytotoxic.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tilbury|first=CR|title=Observations on the bite of the Mozambique spitting cobra|url=http://archive.samj.org.za/1982%20VOL%20LXI%20Jan-Jun/Articles/02%20February/4.6%20OBSERVATIONS%20ON%20THE%20BITE%20I=OF%20THE%20MOZAMBIQUE%20SPITTING%20COBRA%20%28NAJA%20MOSSAMBICA%20MOSSAMBICA%29,%20C.R.pdf|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref>

====Mali cobra====
[[File:Naja Katiensis.jpg|thumb|Mali cobra (''Naja katiensis'')]]
The [[Mali cobra]] (''Naja katiensis'') is a venomous species of spitting cobra native to western Africa. The venom of this species consists of postsynaptic [[neurotoxin]]s<ref name="najak">{{cite web|title=Naja katiensis|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0182|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> and [[cardiotoxin]]s with [[cytotoxin|cytotoxic]] (necrotizing) activity.<ref name="MedTox" /> An average wet venom yield of 100&nbsp;mg has been reported for this species.<ref name="SB95" /> The average murine {{LD50}} value of this species is 1.15&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous therapy|IV]], but there is an [[Intravenous therapy|IV]] {{LD50}} range of 0.97&nbsp;mg/kg-1.45&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Leong">{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001672 |title=Cross Neutralization of Afro-Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom (Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom) |year=2012 |editor1-last=De Silva |editor1-first=Janaka |last1=Leong |first1=Poh Kuan |last2=Sim |first2=Si Mui |last3=Fung |first3=Shin Yee |last4=Sumana |first4=Khomvilai |last5=Sitprija |first5=Visith |last6=Tan |first6=Nget Hong |journal=PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e1672 |pmid=22679522 |pmc=3367981}}</ref> The West African spitting cobra is one of the most common causes of snakebite in [[Senegal]]. Over 24 years, from 1976 to 1999, a prospective study was conducted of overall and cause-specific mortality among the population of 42 villages of southeastern Senegal. Of 4228 deaths registered during this period, 26 were caused by snakebite, four by invertebrate stings and eight by other wild or domestic animals. The average annual mortality rate from snakebite was 14 deaths per 100,000 population. Among persons aged one year or over, 0.9% (26/2880) of deaths were caused by snakebite and this cause represented 28% (26/94) of total deaths by accidents. Of 1280 snakes belonging to 34 species collected, one-third were dangerous, and the proportions of Viperidae, Elapidae and Atractaspidae were 23%, 11% and 0.6%, respectively. This species was third, responsible for 5.5% of the snakebites.<ref name="Trape">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90202-0 |title=High mortality from snakebite in south-eastern Senegal |year=2001 |last1=Trape |first1=J.F. |last2=Pison |first2=G. |last3=Guyavarch |first3=E. |last4=Mane |first4=Y. |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=420–3 |pmid=11579888}}</ref>

===Rinkhals===
[[File:Rinkhals2.jpg|thumb|upright|Rinkhals (''Hemachatus haemachatus'')]]
The [[Rinkhals]] (''Hemachatus haemachatus'') is a not a true cobra in that it does not belong to the genus ''Naja''. However, it is closely related to the true [[cobra]]s and is considered to be one of the true [[spitting cobras]].<ref name="Hunter">{{cite web|url=http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/34|title=Venomous Reptiles|accessdate=|author=S. Hunter|authorlink= |year=2000 |format= |work= |publisher=|pages= |language= |quote= }}</ref> The venom of this species is less viscous than that of other African elapids, naturally, as thinner fluid is naturally easier to spit. However, the venom of the rinkhals is produced in copious amounts. Average venom yield is 80–120&nbsp;mg and the murine {{LD50}} is 1.1-1.6&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]] with an estimated lethal dose for humans of 50–60&nbsp;mg. Actual bites from this species are fairly rare, and deaths in modern times are so far unheard of. Local symptoms of swelling and bruising is reported in about 25% of cases. General symptoms of drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, violent abdominal pain and vertigo often occur, as does a mild pyrexial reaction. Neurotoxic symptoms are however rare and have only included diplopia and dyspnoea. Ophthalmia has been reported, but has not caused as severe complications as in some of the spitters in the genus ''Naja'' (especially ''N. nigricollis'' and ''N. mossambica'').<ref name="rinkhals">{{cite web|title=The Natural History and Captive Care of the Rinkhals spitting cobra|url=http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/34|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref>

===African vipers===
====Puff adder====
[[File:Bitis arietans.jpg|thumb|Puff adder (''Bitis arietans'')]]
The [[Bitis arietans|Puff adder]] (''Bitis arietans'') is responsible for more fatalities than any other African snake. This is due to a combination of factors, including its wide distribution, common occurrence, large size, potent venom that is produced in large amounts, long fangs, their habit of basking by footpaths and sitting quietly when approached.<ref name="Mal03" /><ref name="SB95" /><ref name="Spa04" /> The venom has [[cytotoxic]] effects<ref name="Wid94">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00176504 |title=Load cycling closure of fasciotomies following puff adder bite |year=1994 |last1=Widgerow |first1=A.D. |last2=Ritz |first2=M. |last3=Song |first3=C. |journal=European Journal of Plastic Surgery |volume=17 |issue=1}}</ref> and is one of the most [[toxin|toxic]] of any vipers based on LD50 studies.<ref name="Mal03" /> The {{LD50}} values in mice vary: 0.4–2.0&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous|IV]], 0.9–3.7&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum|IP]], 4.4–7.7&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]].<ref name="Bro73" /> Mallow et al. (2003) gives a LD<span style="font-size:100%;"><sub>50</sub></span> range of 1.0–7.75&nbsp;mg/kg SC. Venom yield is typically between 100–350&nbsp;mg, with a maximum of 750&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Mal03" /> Brown (1973) mentions a venom yield of 180–750&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Bro73" /> About 100&nbsp;mg is thought{{by whom|date=October 2016}} to be enough to kill a healthy adult human male, with death occurring after 25&nbsp;hours. In humans, bites from this species can produce severe local and systemic symptoms. Based on the degree and type of local effect, bites can be divided into two symptomatic categories: those with little or no surface [[extravasation]], and those with [[hemorrhage]]s evident as [[ecchymosis]], bleeding and swelling. In both cases there is severe pain and tenderness, but in the latter there is widespread superficial or deep [[necrosis]] and [[compartment syndrome]].<ref name="pmid21226389">{{cite journal |pmid=21226389 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/9565 |title=Case report: Hyperbaric oxygen in the treatment of puff adder (Bitis arietans) bite |year=2010 |last1=Rainer |first1=PP |last2=Kaufmann |first2=P |last3=Smolle-Juettner |first3=FM |last4=Krejs |first4=GJ |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=395–8 |journal=Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine}}</ref> Serious bites cause limbs to become immovably flexed as a result of significant [[hemorrhage]] or [[coagulation]] in the affected muscles. Residual induration, however, is rare and usually these areas completely resolve.<ref name="Mal03" /> The fatality rate depends on the severity of the bites and some other factors{{clarify|date=October 2016}}. Deaths are rare and occur in less than 10% of all untreated cases (usually in 2–4 days from complications following blood volume deficit and a disseminated intravascular [[coagulopathy]]), although some reports show that very severe envenomations have a 52% mortality rate.<ref name="Davidson5">{{cite web|url=http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Arietans.htm |title=IMMEDIATE FIRST AID |accessdate=2011-09-14 |last=Davidson |first=Terence |publisher=University of California, San Diego |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402114801/http://drdavidson.ucsd.edu/Portals/0/snake/Arietans.htm |archivedate=2012-04-02 |df= }}</ref><ref name="USN91">U.S. Navy. 1991. ''Venomous Snakes of the World''. US Govt. New York: Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. {{ISBN|0-486-26629-X}}.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Most fatalities are associated with bad clinical management and neglect.<ref name="SB95" /><ref name="Spa04" />

====Rhinoceros viper====
[[File:Rhinocerous viper - Bitis nasicornis.jpg|thumb|Rhinoceros viper (''Bitis nasicornis'')]]
The [[Rhinoceros viper]] (''Bitis nasicornis'') is a large species of viper that is similar to the [[Gaboon viper]], but not as venomous, smaller and with a less dangerous bite. They are slow moving, but like other ''Bitis'' species, they're capable of striking quickly, forwards or sideways, without coiling first or giving a warning. Holding them by the tail is not safe; as it is somewhat prehensile, they can use it to fling themselves upwards and strike.<ref name="Mal03" /> They have been described as generally placid creatures, not as bad-tempered as the [[Bitis arietans|Puff adder]]. When approached, they often reveal their presence by hissing,<ref name="Mal03" /> said to be the loudest hiss of any African snake—almost a shriek.<ref name="Spa04" /> Relatively little is known about the toxicity and composition of the venom, but it has very minor neurotoxic, as well as hemotoxic venom, as do most other venomous snakes. The hemotoxic venom in rhinoceros vipers is much more dominant. This venom attacks the [[circulatory system]] of the snake's victim, destroying [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]] and [[blood vessel]]s. Internal bleeding also occurs. In mice, the intravenous {{LD50}} is 1.1&nbsp;mg/kg. The venom is supposedly slightly less toxic than those of the Puff adder and the Gaboon viper. The maximum wet venom yield is 200&nbsp;mg.<ref name="SB95" /> In only a few detailed reports of human envenomation, massive swelling, which may lead to necrosis, had been described.<ref name="SB95" /> In 2003, a man in [[Dayton, Ohio]], who was keeping a specimen as a pet, was bitten and subsequently died.<ref name="CC03">[http://www.channelcincinnati.com/news/2380861/detail.html Firefighter Dies After Bite From Pet Snake] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060401022204/http://www.channelcincinnati.com/news/2380861/detail.html |date=2006-04-01 }} at [http://www.channelcincinnati.com/index.html channelcincinnati.com]. Accessed 24 October 2013.</ref> At least one antivenom protects specifically against bites from this species: India Antiserum Africa Polyvalent.<ref name="VR">[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/pages/antbnk Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Venom Response Unit] at [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/ VenomousReptiles.org]. Accessed 24 October 2013.</ref>

===Australian black snakes===
'''King brown snake or Mulga snake'''
[[File:Kingbrownsnake.jpg|thumb|King brown snake (''Pseudechis australis'')]]
The Australian [[Pseudechis australis|King brown snake or Mulga snake]] (''Pseudechis australis'') is the second longest species of venomous snake in Australia. The venom of this snake is relatively weak compared to many other Australian species. The [[Median lethal dose|LD<sub>50</sub>]] is 2.38&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]].<ref>The Australian venom research unit (August 25, 2007). [http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm "Which snakes are the most venomous?"]. [[University of Melbourne]]. Retrieved October 24, 2013.</ref> However, these snakes can deliver large amounts of venom when they bite, compensating for the lower venom potency. Average venom yield is 180&nbsp;mg and they have a maximum yield of 600&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Shea">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1751-0813.1999.tb12947.x |title=The distribution and identification of dangerously venomous Australian terrestrial snakes |year=1999 |last1=Shea |first1=GM |journal=Australian Veterinary Journal |volume=77 |issue=12 |pages=791–8 |pmid=10685181}}</ref><ref name="Sutherland">{{cite book|last=Sutherland|first=SK|title=Australian Animal Toxins|year=1983|publisher=OUP Australia and New Zealand|isbn=019554367X}}</ref> The venom of this species contains potent [[myotoxin]]s and [[anticoagulant]]s, that can inhibit blood clotting. The neurotoxic components are weak. This snake can cause severe envenomation of humans. They are a moderately common cause of snakebites and uncommonly to rarely cause snakebite deaths in Australia at present. Envenomation can cause anticoagulation coagulopathy, renal damage or renal failure (kidney failure). They do not cause significant neurotoxic paralysis (muscle weakness, respiratory failure), though rarely they may cause ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelids). Bites can also cause myolysis (rhabdomyolysis, muscle damage) which can be very severe and is the major effect of bites.<ref name="mulga">{{cite web|title=Australian Mulga Snakes|url=http://toxinology.com/about/mulga_snake_snakebite.html|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> Rate of envenomation is 40-60%, while untreated mortality rate is 30-40%.<ref name="mulga2">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0521|quote=Mortality rate:30-40%}}</ref>

====Red-bellied black snake====
[[File:Red-Bellied-Black-Snake-BFP-2.jpg|thumb|Red-bellied black snake (''Pseudechis porphyriacus'')]]
The [[Red-bellied black snake]] (''Pseudechis porphyriacus'') is a venomous species native to Australia. The venom of the red-bellied black snake consists of myotoxins, coagulants and also has haemolytic and cytotoxic properties. It also contains weak pre-synaptic neurotoxins. The murine {{LD50}} is 2.52&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]]. Average venom yield per bite is 37&nbsp;mg and a maximum yield of 97&nbsp;mg.<ref name="Shea" /> Bites from red-bellied black snake are rarely life-threatening due to the snake usually choosing to inject little venom toxin, but are still in need of immediate medical attention. Rate of envenomation is 40-60%, but the untreated mortality rate is less than 1%.<ref name="pp">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0525|quote=Mortality rate:<1%}}</ref>

===Australian brown snakes===
====Dugite====
[[File:Dugite on a walking path crop.jpg|thumb|Dugite (''Pseudonaja affinis'')]]
The [[Dugite]] (''Pseudonaja affinis'') is a highly venomous Australian brown snake species. The venom of this species contains highly potent presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins and procoagulants. The murine {{LD50}} is 0.66&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutis|SC]].<ref name="Cheng">{{cite web|last=Cheng|first=David|title=Brown Snake Envenomation|url=http://misc.medscape.com/pi/iphone/medscapeapp/html/A772066-business.html|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> The average venom yield per bite is 18&nbsp;mg (dry weight of milked venom) according to Meier and White (1995). Rate of envenomation is 20-40% and the untreated mortality rate is 10–20 %by cardiac arrest, renal failure, or cerebral hemorrhage.

====Western Brown snake====
[[File:Western Brown snake.jpg|thumb|Western brown snake (''Pseudonaja nuchalis'')]]
The [[western brown snake]] (''Pseudonaja nuchalis'') is a highly venomous species of brown snake common throughout Western Australia. Its venom contains powerful [[neurotoxin]]s, [[nephrotoxin]]s and a [[Prothrombin|procoagulant]], although humans are not usually affected by the neurotoxins.<ref name="vensup">{{cite web | author = Venom Supplies Pty Ltd | title = Brown Snakes | url = http://www.venomsupplies.com/brown-snakes/}}</ref> The bite is usually painless and difficult to see due to their small fangs. Human symptoms of a Western Brown snake bite are headache, nausea/vomiting, abdominal pain, severe coagulopathy and sometimes, kidney damage.<ref name="wbs">{{cite web | author = Toxinology Department, Women's & Children's Hospital, Adelaide, Australia | title = CSL Antivenom Handbook - Brown Snake Antivenom | url = http://www.toxinology.com/generic_static_files/cslavh_antivenom_brown.html}}</ref> The {{LD50}} in mice is 0.47&nbsp;mg/kg and the average venom yield per bite is 18&nbsp;mg (dry weight of milked venom) according to Meier and White (1995). The western brown snake can cause rapid death in humans by cardiac arrest, renal failure, or cerebral hemorrhage. The envenomation rate is 20-40% and the untreated mortality rate is 10-20%.<ref name="pn">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0532|quote=Mortality rate:10-20%}}</ref>

===Rattlesnakes===
Some [[Crotalus|rattlesnake]] species can be quite dangerous to humans.

====Tiger rattlesnake====
[[File:Tiger Rattlesnake 001.jpg|thumb|Tiger rattlesnake (''Crotalus tigris'')]]
The [[Crotalus tigris|Tiger rattlesnake]] (''Crotalus tigris'') has a comparatively low [[venom]] yield<ref>Weinstein and Smith (1990)</ref> but is considered to have the most toxic of all rattlesnake venoms, and the highest venom toxicity of all snakes in the Western Hemisphere. Although they're reluctant to bite, tiger rattlensakes are known to be cantankerous and aggressive . Because of their tendency to stand their ground and aggressively defend themselves, they pose a serious threat to humans. Tiger rattlesnake venom has a high [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] fraction that is [[antigen]]ically related to Mojave toxin (see ''[[Crotalus scutulatus]]'', venom A), and includes another component immunologically identical to crotamine, a [[myotoxin]] also found in tropical rattlesnakes (see ''[[Crotalus durissus#Venom|Crotalus durissus]]''). The venom has low but significant [[protease]] activity, although there does not seem to be any hemolytic activity.<ref name="Nor-C&L04">Norris R. (2004). Venom Poisoning in North American Reptiles. ''In'' Campbell JA, Lamar WW. (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere.'' Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London. 870 pp. 1500 plates. {{ISBN|0-8014-4141-2}}.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Brown (1973) lists an average venom yield of 11&nbsp;mg (dried venom) and {{LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>}} values of 0.07&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum#Intraperitoneal|IP]], 0.056&nbsp;mg/kg [[intravenous injection|IV]], and 0.21&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]].<ref name="Venom">{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/pr201021d |title=Snake Venomics of Crotalus tigris: The Minimalist Toxin Arsenal of the Deadliest Neartic Rattlesnake Venom. Evolutionary Clues for Generating a Pan-Specific Antivenom against Crotalid Type II Venoms |year=2012 |last1=Calvete |first1=Juan J. |last2=Pérez |first2=Alicia |last3=Lomonte |first3=Bruno |last4=Sánchez |first4=Elda E. |last5=Sanz |first5=Libia |journal=Journal of Proteome Research |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=1382–90 |pmid=22181673 |pmc=3272105}}</ref> Minton and Weinstein (1984) list an average venom yield of 6.4&nbsp;mg (based on two specimens). Weinstein and Smith (1990) list a venom yield of 10&nbsp;mg.<ref name="ctigris">{{cite web|title= University of Adelaide Clinical Toxinology Resources|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0471}}</ref> Humans are rarely bitten by the tiger rattlesnake, and literature available on bites by this snake is scarce. The several recorded human envenomations by tiger rattlesnakes produced little local pain, swelling, or other reaction following the bite and, despite the toxicity of its venom, no significant systemic symptoms have been recorded. The comparatively low venom yield (6.4–11&nbsp;mg dried venom) and short {{convert|4.0|mm|cm|abbr=on}} to {{convert|4.6|mm|cm|abbr=on}} fangs of the tiger rattlesnake possibly prevent severe envenoming in adult humans. However, the clinical picture could be much more serious if the person bitten was a child or an individual with a slight build. The early therapeutic use of [[antivenom]] is important if significant envenomation is suspected. Despite the low venom yield, a bite by this rattlesnake should be considered a life-threatening medical emergency. Untreated mortality rate is unknown.<ref name="Nor-C&L04" /><ref name="ctigris" />

====Cascabel====
[[File:Cascabelle.JPG|thumb|Neotropical rattlesnake (''Crotalus durissus'')]]
The [[Crotalus durissus|Neotropical rattlesnake or Cascabel]] (''Crotalus durissus'') is a medically important species due to its venom toxicity and the human fatalities it is responsible for. The [[Peritoneum#Intraperitoneal|IP]] {{LD50}} value is 0.17&nbsp;mg/kg with an average venom yield between 20–100&nbsp;mg/kg per bite. Bite symptoms are very different from those of [[Nearctic]] species<ref name="Kla97">{{cite book| author = Laurence Monroe Klauber| title = Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind |edition=2nd | year = 1997| publisher = University of California Press| isbn = 978-0-520-21056-1 }}{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> due to the presence of [[neurotoxin]]s (crotoxin and [[crotamine]]) that cause progressive paralysis.<ref name="War-C&L04" /> Bites from ''C. d. terrificus'' in particular can result in impaired vision or complete blindness, auditory disorders, [[Ptosis (eyelid)|ptosis]], paralysis of the peripheral muscles, especially of the neck, which becomes so limp as to appear broken, and eventually life-threatening respiratory paralysis. The ocular disturbances, which according to Alvaro (1939) occur in some 60% of ''C. d. terrificus'' cases, are sometimes followed by permanent blindness.<ref name="Kla97" /> Phospholipase A<span style="font-size:100%;"><sub>2</sub></span> neurotoxins also cause damage to skeletal muscles and possibly the heart, causing general aches, pain, and tenderness throughout the body. [[Myoglobin]] released into the blood results in dark urine. Other serious complications may result from systemic disorders (incoagulable blood and general spontaneous bleeding), hypotension, and shock.<ref name="War-C&L04" /> Hemorrhagins may be present in the venom, but any corresponding effects are completely overshadowed by the startling and serious neurotoxic symptoms.<ref name="Kla97" /> [[Subcutaneous injection|Subcutaneous]] venom {{LD50}} for this species is 0.193&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name="Lima">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(91)90070-8 |title=Susceptibility of different strains of mice to South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus) venom: Correlation between lethal effect and creatine kinase release |year=1991 |last1=d'Império Lima |first1=Maria Regina |last2=Dos Santos |first2=Maria |last3=Tambourgi |first3=Denise Vilarinho |last4=Marques |first4=Thaís |last5=Da Silva |first5=Wilmar |last6=Kipnis |first6=Thereza |journal=Toxicon |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=783–6 |pmid=1926179}}</ref> The neotropical rattlesnake in Brazil is of special importance because of the high incidence of envenoming and mortality rates. Clinically, venom of this snake does not usually cause local effects at the bite site and is usually painless. However, the etiology progresses to systemic neurotoxic and myalgic symptoms, with frequent renal failure accompanied by acute tubular necrosis.<ref name="furtado">{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S1678-91992003000200005 |title=Age-related biological activity of South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus) venom |year=2003 |last1=Furtado |first1=M. F. D. |last2=Santos |first2=M. C. |last3=Kamiguti |first3=A. S. |journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=186–201}}</ref> The huge area of distribution, potent venom in fairly large quantities and a definite willingness to defend themselves are important factors in their dangerousness. In Brazil and probably also in other countries in their area of distribution, this species is probably the most dangerous rattlesnake. After the fer-de-lance (''Bothrops asper''), it is the most common cause of snake envenoming. In the first half of the 20th century as well as in the 1950s and 1960s, 12% of treated cases ended fatally. Untreated cases apparently had a mortality rate of 72% in the same period, but this was due to the fact that there was no antivenom, poor medical care and neglect (Rosenfeld, 1971). In more recent times, an average of 20,000 snakebites are registered each year in Brazil, almost 10% of them caused by the neotropical rattlesnake. The mortality rate is estimated at 3.3% and is thus much lower than in the past (Ribeiro, 1990b). A study from southeastern Brazil documented only one fatality from 87 treated cases (Silveira and Nishioka, 1992).<ref name="C.durissus">{{cite web|title=Venomous and Poisonous Animals Biology & Clinical Management|url=https://www.vapaguide.info/catalogue/TER-PIT-61|work=VAPAGuide|publisher=Biomedical database|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref>

====Mojave rattlesnake====
[[File:Crotalus scutulatus 02.JPG|thumb|Mojave rattlesnake (''Crotalus scutulatus'')]]
The [[Mojave rattlesnake]] (''Crotalus scutulatus'') is another species which is considered to be dangerous. Although they have a reputation for being aggressive towards people, such behavior is not described in the scientific literature. Like other rattlesnakes, they will defend themselves vigorously when disturbed. The [[Peritoneum#Intraperitoneal|IP]] {{LD50}} value is 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg with an average venom yield between 50–150&nbsp;mg/kg per bite. The most common subspecies of Mojave rattlesnake (type A) has venom that is considered to be one of the most debilitating and potentially deadly of all North American snakes, although chances for survival are very good if medical attention is sought as soon as possible after a bite.<ref name="cbsnews">"Mojave Green snake bites 6-year-old California boy, 42 vials of antivenom needed", Jaslow, Ryan, CBS News, 10 July 2012, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504763_162-57469802-10391704/mojave-green-snake-bites-6-year-old-california-boy-42-vials-of-antivenom-needed/</ref> Based on median LD<sub>50</sub> values in lab mice, venom A from subspecies A Mojave rattlesnakes is more than ten times as toxic as venom B, from type B Mohave green rattlesnakes which lacks Mojave toxin.<ref>Hendon, R.A., A.L. Bieber. 1982. Presynaptic toxins from rattlesnake venoms. In: Tu, A. (ed) ''Rattlesnake Venoms, Their Actions and Treatment''. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Medical treatment as soon as possible after a bite is critical to a positive outcome, dramatically increasing chances for survival.<ref name="cbsnews" /> However, venom B causes pronounced [[Proteolysis|proteolytic]] and [[Bleeding|hemorrhagic]] effects, similar to the bites of other rattlesnake species; these effects are significantly reduced or absent from bites by venom A snakes.<ref name="Norris">Norris RA. 2004. Venom poisoning by North American reptiles. ''In'' Campbell JA, Lamar WW. 2004. The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London. 870 pp. 1500 plates. {{ISBN|0-8014-4141-2}}.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Risk to life and limb is still significant, as with all rattlesnakes, if not treated as soon as possible after a bite. All rattlesnake venoms are complex cocktails of enzymes and other proteins that vary greatly in composition and effects, not only between species, but also between geographic populations within the same species. The Mojave rattlesnake is widely regarded as producing one of the most toxic snake venoms in the New World, based on {{LD50}} studies in laboratory mice.<ref name="Glenn1">Glenn, J.L., R.C.Straight. 1982. The rattlesnakes and their venom yield and lethal toxicity. In: Tu, A. (ed) ''Rattlesnake Venoms, Their Actions and Treatment''. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> Their potent venom is the result of a [[Chemical synapse|presynaptic]] [[neurotoxin]] composed of two distinct [[peptide]] subunits.<ref name="Aird">{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/bi00346a005 |title=Rattlesnake presynaptic neurotoxins: Primary structure and evolutionary origin of the acidic subunit |year=1985 |last1=Aird |first1=Steven D. |last2=Kaiser |first2=Ivan I. |last3=Lewis |first3=Randolph V. |last4=Kruggel |first4=William G. |journal=Biochemistry |volume=24 |issue=25 |pages=7054–8 |pmid=4084559}}</ref> The basic subunit (a [[Phospholipase|phospholipase A<sub>2</sub>]]) is mildly toxic and apparently rather common in North American rattlesnake venoms.<ref name="Powell">Powell, R.L. 2003. ''Evolutionary Genetics of Mojave Toxin Among Selected Rattlesnake Species (Squamata: Crotalinae)''. Unpublished PhD dissertation. El Paso: University of Texas.{{page needed|date=October 2013}}</ref> The less common acidic subunit is not toxic by itself, but in combination with the basic subunit, produces the potent neurotoxin called "Mojave toxin". Nearly identical neurotoxins have been discovered in five North American rattlesnake species besides the Mojave rattlesnake.<ref name="Powell" /> However, not all populations express both subunits. The venom of many Mojave rattlesnakes from south-central Arizona lacks the acidic subunit and has been designated "venom B," while Mojave rattlesnakes tested from all other areas express both subunits and have been designated "venom A" populations.<ref name="Glenn2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(83)90055-7 |title=Geographical variation in Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (Mojave rattlesnake) venom properties |year=1983 |last1=Glenn |first1=James L. |last2=Straight |first2=Richard C. |last3=Wolfe |first3=Martha C. |last4=Hardy |first4=David L. |journal=Toxicon |volume=21 |pages=119–30 |pmid=6342208 |issue=1}}</ref>

===Pit vipers===
====Malayan pit viper====
[[File:Calloselasma rhodostoma.jpg|thumb|Malayan pit viper (''Calloselasma rhodostoma'')]]
The [[Malayan pit viper]] (''Calloselasma rhodostoma'') is an Asian species of pitviper that is reputed to be an ill-tempered snake that is quick to strike in defense. This species is one of the main causes of snakebite envenoming in Southeast Asia. However, mortality rate among untreated bite victims is very low (1-10%).<ref name="cr">{{cite web|title=Calloselasma rhodostoma|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&mode=PrintFriendly&id=SN0080|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=3 November 2013}}</ref> Although bites are common, death is very rare. When a victim dies of a bite it is chiefly caused by haemorrhages and secondary infections.<ref name="Warrell86" /> Before specific antivenom became available, the mortality rate in hospitalised patients was around 1% (Reid et al. 1967a). In the study of Reid et al. (1963a), of a total of 291 patients with verified ''C. rhodostoma'' bites, only 2 patients died, and their deaths could only be indirectly attributed to the snakebites. One patient died of [[tetanus]] and one from a combination of an anaphylactic reaction to the antivenom, an intracerebral haemorrhage and severe pre-existing anaemia. In 23 fatalities due to ''C. rhodostoma'' bites recorded in northern Malaysia between 1955 and 1960, the average time between the bite and death was 64.6 h (5–240 h), the median time 32 h (Reid et al. 1963a). According to a study of fatal snakebites in rural areas of Thailand, 13 out of 46 were caused by ''C. rhodostoma'' (Looareesuwan et al. 1988). The local necrotising effect of the venom is a common cause of morbidity. [[Gangrene]] can lead to the loss of toes, fingers or whole extremities; chronic infections ([[osteomyelitis]]) can also occur.<ref name="Warrell86">{{cite book|last=Warrell|first=DA|title=Natural toxins : animal, plant, and microbial|year=1986|publisher=Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press|isbn=0198541732|pages=25–45}}</ref> The intravenous {{LD50}} for Malayan pit viper venom is 6.1&nbsp;mg/kg mouse<ref name="Tan" /> and the average venom yield per bite is 40–60&nbsp;mg (dry weight).<ref name="cr" />

====Sharp-nosed pit viper====
[[File:Sharp-Nosed Viper 01.jpg|thumb|Sharp-nosed pit viper (''Deinagkistrodon acutus'')]]
The [[Deinagkistrodon acutus|Sharp-nosed pit viper or hundred pacer]] (''Deinagkistrodon acutus'') is another Asian species of pitviper that is medically important. This species is considered dangerous, and fatalities are not unusual. According to the U.S. Armed Forces Pest Management Board, the venom is a potent [[hemotoxin]] that is strongly hemorrhagic. Bite symptoms include severe local pain and bleeding that may begin almost immediately. This is followed by considerable swelling, blistering, necrosis, and ulceration.<ref name="afpmb">{{cite web|title=Deinagkistrodon acutus|url=http://www.afpmb.org/content/venomous-animals-d#Deinagkistrodonacutus|work=Armed Forces Pest Management Board|publisher=United States Army|accessdate=3 November 2013}}</ref> Brown (1973) mentions a venom yield of up to 214&nbsp;mg (dried) and {{LD50}} values of 0.04&nbsp;mg/kg [[Intravenous|IV]], 4.0&nbsp;mg/kg [[Peritoneum|IP]] and 9.2-10.0&nbsp;mg/kg [[Subcutaneous injection|SC]].<ref name="Bro73" /> The envenomation rate is up to 80% and the untreated mortality rate is very low (1-10%).<ref name="da">{{cite web|title=Deinagkistrodon acutus|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0081|work=Clinical Toxinology Resource|publisher=University of Adelaide|accessdate=3 November 2013}}</ref> Antivenom is produced in China and Taiwan.<ref name="Meh87">Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. {{ISBN|0-8069-6460-X}}.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Lists of snakes]]
[[Category:Venomous snakes]]

Revision as of 11:22, 27 June 2018

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