History of saffron
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The history of saffron cultivation and usage reaches back more than 3,000 years[1] and spans many cultures, continents, and civilizations. Saffron, a spice derived from the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), has remained among the world's most costly substances throughout history. With its bitter taste, hay-like fragrance, and slight metallic notes, saffron has been used as a seasoning, fragrance, dye, and medicine. Saffron is native to Southwest Asia,[2][3] but was first cultivated in Greece.[4]
The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus is Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred C. cartwrightianus specimens by selecting for plants with abnormally long stigmas. Thus, sometime in late Bronze Age Crete, a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, emerged.[5] Saffron was first documented in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal. Since then, documentation of saffron's use over a span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some ninety illnesses has been uncovered.[6] Saffron slowly spread throughout much of Eurasia, later reaching parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
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Middle Eastern
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Saffron-based pigments have been found in the prehistoric paints used to depict beasts in 50,000-year-old cave art in what is today Iraq.[7][8] Later, the Sumerians used saffron as an ingredient in their remedies and magical potions. However, Sumerians did not actively cultivate saffron. They instead chose to gather their stores from wild flowers only, because they felt that only divine intervention would enable saffron's medicinal properties.[9] Such evidence indeed provides evidence that saffron was an article of long-distance trade before Crete's Minoan palace culture reached a peak in the 2nd millennium BC. Saffron was also honoured as a sweet-smelling spice over three millennia ago in the Hebrew Tanakh:[10]
"Your lips drop sweetness like honeycomb, my bride, syrup and milk are under your tongue, and your dress had the scent of Lebanon. Your cheeks are an orchard of pomegranates, an orchard full of rare fruits, spikenard and saffron, sweet cane and cinnamon."
— Song of Solomon[10]
In ancient Persia, saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') was cultivated at Derbena and Isfahan in the 10th century BC. There, Persian saffron threads have been found interwoven into ancient Persian royal carpets and funeral shrouds.[7] Saffron was used by ancient Persian worshipers as a ritual offering to deities. It was also used as a brilliant yellow dye, a perfume, and a medicine. Thus, saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Indeed, Persian saffron threads, used to spice foods and teas, were widely suspected by foreigners of being a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. Such was the fear of this that travellers to Persia were forewarned about eating saffron-laced Persian cuisine.[11] In addition, Persian saffron was dissolved along with sandalwood into water for use as a body wash for use after heavy work and perspiration under the hot Persian sun.[12] Later, Persian saffron was heavily used by Alexander the Great and his forces during their Asian campaigns. There, they mixed saffron into their teas and dined on saffron rice. Alexander himself used saffron sprinkled in warm water as a bath. He hoped that it would heal his many wounds, and his faith in saffron grew with each treatment. Indeed, he recommended saffron baths for the ordinary men under him. The Greek soldiers, taken with saffron's perceived curative properties, indeed continued the practice after they returned to Macedonia.[13] Saffron cultivation also reached what is now Turkey, with harvesting concentrated around the northern town of Safranbolu; the area still known for its annual saffron harvest festivals.
Indian and Chinese
Various conflicting accounts exist that describe saffron's first arrival in South and East Asia. The first of these rely on historical accounts gleaned from Persian records. These suggest to many experts that saffron, among other spices, was first spread to India via Persian rulers' efforts to stock their newly built gardens and parks. They accomplished this by transplanting the desired cultivars across the Persian empire.[14] Another variant of this theory states that, after ancient Persia conquered Kashmir, Persian saffron crocus corms were transplanted to Kashmiri soil. The first harvest then occurred sometime prior to 500 BC.[4] Phoenicians then began in the 6th century BC to market the new Kashmiri saffron by utilising their extensive trade routes. Once sold, Kashmiri saffron was used in the treatment of melancholy and as a fabric dye.[11]
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On the other hand, traditional Kashmiri legend states that saffron first arrived sometime during the 11th and 12th centuries AD, when two foreign and itinerant Sufi ascetics, Khwaja Masood Wali and Hazrat Sheikh Shariffudin, wandered into Kashmir. The foreigners, having fallen sick, beseeched a cure for illness from a local tribal chieftain. When the chieftain obliged, the two holy men reputedly gave them a saffron crocus bulb as payment and thanks. To this day, grateful prayers are offered to the two saints during the saffron harvesting season in late autumn. The saints, indeed, have a golden-domed shrine and tomb dedicated to them in the saffron-trading village of Pampore, India. However, the Kashmiri poet and scholar Mohammed Yusuf Teng disputes this. He states that Kashmiris had cultivated saffron for more than two millennia. Indeed, such ancient indigenous cultivation is alluded to in Kashmiri Tantric Hindu epics of that time.[15]
Ancient Chinese Buddhist accounts from the Mula-sarvastivadin[16] monastic order (or vinaya) present yet another account of saffron's arrival in India. According to legend, an arhat Indian Buddhist missionary by the name of Madhyântika (or Majjhantika) was sent to Kashmir in the 5th century BC. When he got there, he reportedly sowed Kashmir's first saffron crop.[17] From there, saffron use spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. In addition to use in foods, saffron stigmas were also soaked in water to yield a golden-yellow solution that was used as a fabric dye. Such was the love of the resulting fabric that, immediately after the Buddha Siddhartha Guatama's death, his attendant monks decreed saffron as the official colour for Buddhist robes and mantles.[18]
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia. Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the vast Bencao Gangmu ("Great Herbal") pharmacopoeia (pp. 1552–78), a tome dating from around 1600 BC (and attributed to Emperor Shen-Ung) which documents thousands of phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[18] Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[17]
In modern times, saffron cultivation has spread to Afghanistan because of the efforts of the European Union and the United Kingdom. Together, they promote saffron cultivation among impoverished and cash-strapped Afghan farmers as an ideal alternative to illicit and lucrative opium production.[19] They stress Afghanistan's sunny and semi-arid climate as ideal for saffron crocus growth.
Post-Classical European
Saffron cultivation in Europe declined steeply following the fall of the Roman Empire. For several centuries thereafter, saffron cultivation was rare or non-existent throughout Europe. This was reversed when Moorish civilisation spread from North Africa to settle most of Spain as well as parts of France and southern Italy. One theory states that Moors reintroduced saffron corms to the region around Poitiers after they lost the Battle of Tours to Charles Martel in AD 732.[20] Two centuries after their conquest of Spain, Moors planted saffron throughout the southern provinces of Andalucia, Castile, La Mancha, and Valencia.[20]
When the Black Death ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1350, demand for saffron and its cultivation skyrocketed. It was coveted by plague victims for its medicinal properties, even though many European farmers capable of growing it died off. Large quantities of saffron imports thus came from non-European lands.[21] Yet the finest saffron threads from Muslim lands were unavailable to Europeans because of hostilities beginning with the Crusades. Thus imports from places such as Rhodes supplied central and northern Europe. Saffron was one of the contested points of hostility that flared between the declining nobleman classes and increasingly wealthy merchants. For example, the fourteen-week-long "Saffron War" was ignited when an 800-pound (360 kg) shipment of saffron was hijacked and stolen by noblemen.[21] The saffron load, which had been destined for the town of Basel, would at today's market prices be valued at more than US$500,000.[22] That shipment was eventually returned, but the saffron trade in the 13th century remained the subject of mass theft and piracy. Indeed, pirates plying Mediterranean waters would often ignore gold stores and instead steal Venetian- and Genoan-marketed saffron bound for Europe. The ordinary people of Basel, wary of such future piracy, thus planted their own corms. After several years of large and lucrative saffron harvests, Basel grew extremely prosperous compared to other European towns. Basel attempted to protect its status by outlawing the transportation of corms outside the town's borders; guards were posted to prevent thieves from picking flowers or digging up corms. Nevertheless, after ten years the saffron crop failed, and Basel abandoned cultivation.[23]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Iran_saffron_threads.jpg/200px-Iran_saffron_threads.jpg)
The centre of central European saffron trade then moved to Nuremberg, while the merchants of Venice continued their dominance of the Mediterranean sea trade. There, saffron varieties from Austria, Crete, France, Greece, the Ottoman Empire, Sicily, and Spain were sold. Also sold were many adulterated samples, including those soaked in honey, mixed with marigold petals, or kept in damp cellars in order to increase the saffron threads' weight. This prompted Nuremberg authorities to pass the so-called Safranschou code, which sought to regulate saffron trading.[24] Saffron adulterators were thereafter fined, imprisoned, and executed via immolation.[25] Soon after, England emerged as a major European saffron producer. Saffron, according to one theory,[26] spread to the coastal regions of eastern England in the 14th century AD during the reign of Edward III. In subsequent years saffron was fleetingly cultivated throughout England. Norfolk and Suffolk were especially heavily planted with corms. However, long-term saffron cultivation only survived in the light, well-drained, and chalk-based soils of the Essex countryside. Indeed, the Essex town of Saffron Walden got its name as a saffron growing and trading centre. Its name was originally Cheppinge Walden and the name was changed to show the importance of the crop to the local area. The crest of the town shows the crocus now. Yet as England emerged from the Middle Ages, rising puritanical sentiments and new conquests abroad endangered English saffron's usage and cultivation. Puritanical advocates favoured more austere, simple, and un-spiced foods. In addition, an influx of additional spices from Eastern lands due to the growing spice trade meant that the English, as well as other Europeans, had more seasonings to choose from.[27]
This trend was documented by Reverend William Herbert, who was the Dean of Manchester. He collected samples and compiled information on many aspects of the saffron crocus.[28] He was concerned about the steady decline in saffron cultivation over the 17th century and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. This was due to the introduction in Europe of such easily grown crops as maize and potatoes, which steadily took over lands formerly dedicated to saffron corms.[29] In addition, the elite who traditionally comprised the bulk of the saffron market were now growing increasingly interested in such exotic and new arrivals as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla. Indeed, only in the south of France, Italy, and Spain, where saffron had been deeply incorporated into the local cultures, did significant cultivation remain.[29]
North American
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Saffron made its way to the Americas when thousands of Alsatian, German, and Swiss Anabaptists, Dunkards, and others fled religious persecution in Europe.[30] They settled mainly in eastern Pennsylvania, in the Susquehanna River valley.[31] These settlers, who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, were by 1730 widely cultivating saffron after corms were first brought to America in a trunk owned by German adherents of a Protestant sect known as the Schwenkfelder Church. Schwenkfelders, as members were known, were great lovers of saffron, and had grown it back in Germany.[32] Soon, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron was being successfully marketed to Spanish colonists in the Caribbean, while healthy demand elsewhere ensured that its listed price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold.[33]
However, the War of 1812 destroyed many of the merchant vessels that transported American saffron abroad. Pennsylvanian saffron growers were afterwards left with surplus inventory, and trade with the Caribbean markets never recovered.[34] Nevertheless, Pennsylvania Dutch growers developed many uses for saffron in their own home cooking, including cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[35] Saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.[32]
Since the 1980s, saffron has been used as a precursor in MDMA synthesis.[36]
See also
Template:Topics related to saffron
Citations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Crocus_sativus1.jpg/200px-Crocus_sativus1.jpg)
- ^ Deo 2003, p. 1 .
- ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287 .
- ^ Hill 2001, p. 272 .
- ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 422 .
- ^ Goyns 1999, p. 1 .
- ^ Honan 2004 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 2 .
- ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 12 .
- ^ a b Humphries 1998, p. 19 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 41 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 17–18 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 54–55 .
- ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256 .
- ^ Lak 1998b .
- ^ Fotedar & 1998-1999, p. 128 .
- ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95 .
- ^ a b Tarvand 2005 .
- ^ Pearce 2005 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 70 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 99 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 100 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 101 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 102–103 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 103–104 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 110 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 117 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 132 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 133 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 134–136 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 136 .
- ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 143 .
- ^ Willard 2001, p. 138 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 138–139 .
- ^ Willard 2001, pp. 142–146 .
- ^ Jennifer McNeal (01-26-07). "MDMA".
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