1951 in spaceflight

1951 in spaceflight
	Viking 7 before its 7 August 1951 launch
Rockets
Maiden flights	Aerobee RTV-A-1a; Aerobee RTV-A-1b; R-1B; R-1V
Retirements	Viking (first model); Aerobee RTV-A-1b; R-1B; R-1V
	v; t; e;

The year 1951 saw extensive exploration of space by the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR) using suborbital rockets. The Soviets launched their first series of biomedical tests to the 100-kilometer (62 mi) boundary of space (as defined by the World Air Sports Federation).^[1] Several American agencies launched more than a dozen scientific sounding rocket flights between them. The US Navy launched its Viking sounding rocket for the seventh time since 1949, this time to a record-breaking 136 miles (219 km) in August 1951.

Development also continued by both superpowers on rockets more powerful than the World War Two era German V-2 that had inaugurated the age of spaceflight. The USSR advanced far beyond their R-1 (a V-2 copy) with the deployment of the R-2 rocket, which could carry a ton of explosives twice as far as its predecessor. Though the ambitious Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile was canceled in 1951, the more achievable R-5 missile project was initiated. Both the US Air Force and the US Army initiated their first post-V-2 ballistic missile projects, Atlas for the former and Redstone for the latter.

Space exploration

United States

The US Army, US Air Force, and the Applied Physics Laboratory continued their use of Aerobee on a variety of physics, aeronomy, photography, weather, and biomedical sounding rocket flights; a total of 11 were launched during the year.^[2] Two of these comprised the earliest space biomedical missions. Launched by the Air Force, and carrying mice and monkeys, they (along with a third flight in 1952) determined that brief (approx. 15 minutes) exposure to acceleration, reduced gravity, and high altitude cosmic radiation did not have significant negative effects.^[3]

The first generation of US Navy-built Viking sounding rockets reached its acme of performance with the flight of Viking 7, the sole Viking launch of 1951. Launched 7 August from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, the rocket set a new world altitude record of 136 miles (219 km).^[4]^{: 167–171, 236}

Soviet Union

The R-1, the Soviet Union's first domestically built long-range ballistic missile, was accepted into service in November 1950. In January 1951, cold-weather testing of the R-1 for quality assurance purposes was conducted.^[5]^{: 149, 152} On 1 June, production of the R-1 was centralized and transferred to a former automobile factory in Dnepropetrovsk, and that month,^[6] a test series of R-1s was successfully launched to the edge of space, all landing within 5.5 kilometers (3.4 mi) of their targets. Though the R-1, a virtual copy of the now-obsolete V-2,^[5]^: 119 was not a particularly formidable weapon and posed virtually no threat to the West, it was invaluable in training engineers and missile crews, as well as creating a nascent rocket industry in the Soviet Union.^[5]^: 152–3

On 29 January 1951, dogs were carried on one of the winter test flights of the R-1.^[2] This was followed in the summer by six R-1s specifically designed and equipped for biomedical flights to determine if their payload dogs could survive the rigors of space travel and be recovered. Three of the missions were successful.^[7]

The R-2 missile, the first operational Soviet design to have a separable nose cone, underwent a second test series of thirteen flights in July 1951, experiencing one failure. Accepted for operational service on 27 November 1951,^[8] the design had a range of 600 kilometers (370 mi), twice that of the R-1, while maintaining a similar payload of around 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb).^[5]^: 48–9

Spacecraft development

US Air Force

By 1950, the war-head carrying ballistic missile, which in the United States had been eclipsed since World War II by guided missile development, received national priority. In January 1951, the US Air Force's Air Research and Development Command awarded to Consolidated Vultee the contract for Atlas, the nation's first Intercontinental ballistic missile.^[9]^: 59–61 The Atlas went on to become one of the key boosters in America's crewed and robotic space programs,^[10]^: 32–39 first orbiting a payload (SCORE) in 1958.^[9]^{: 153, 161–2}

US Army

On 15 April 1950, Wernher von Braun and his team of German rocket engineers were transferred from Fort Bliss to Redstone Arsenal in Alabama. In 1951, the Redstone team was tasked with the research and development of guided missiles and the development and testing of free rockets, solid propellants, Jet-Assisted Take-off rockets, and related items, thus making the Army a leading player in America's missile development.^[11] Their work led to the production of the Redstone missile, first launched in 1953,^[12] versions of which ultimately launched Explorer 1, America's first artificial satellite, in 1958, and Mercury-Redstone 3, America's first human space mission, in 1961.^[13]

US Navy

In the summer of 1950, the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) team led by Milton Rosen began work on an improved Viking rocket able to reach higher altitudes. The team would achieve increased performance through larger fuel tanks and reduced weight elsewhere on the rocket. Originally planned for launch in 1951, the development of the second generation Viking took two years, and the first of the new rockets would not launch until 6 June 1952.^[4]^{: 172–3, 236}

University of Iowa

In January 1951, Dr. James Van Allen, instrumental in the development of the Aerobee rocket, joined the physics department at the State University of Iowa (SUI). Along with University of Chicago graduate Melvin B. Gottlieb and Van Allen's first SUI graduate student, Leslie H. Meredith, they began a high altitude cosmic ray research program using equipment mounted on balloons. Launched from 16 June 1951, though 26 January 1952,^[14]^: 7–10 this experience set the foundation for balloon-launched sounding rockets, which would first breach the boundary of space in 1954.^[14]^: 38

Soviet Union

From 1947, the German émigré-designed G-1 (or R-10) missile had competed with the Soviet-designed R-2 for limited engineering and production staff, the latter winning out by the end of 1949. With the project stalled for lack of resources and government interest, the Soviets terminated all work by the German specialists in October 1950. In December 1951, the first of the specialists were repatriated to East Germany (a process that the Soviets completed in November 1953).^[5]^: 69–70

The draft plan for the ambitious 3,000-kilometer (1,900 mi) range R-3 had been approved on 7 December 1949,^[5]^: 67 but was canceled on 20 October 1951, other designs proving more useful and achievable.^[5]^: 275–6 One of them was the R-5 missile, able to carry the same payload as the R-1 and R-2 but over a distance of 1,200 kilometers (750 mi)^[5]^: 242 (the other being the R-11, a tactical missile half the size of the R-1 but with the same payload).^[15] The R-5's conceptual design was completed by 30 October 1951.^[16]^: 97

Launches

← Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec →

Key

Nazi Germany

USA

Soviet Union

January

January launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
18 January 20:14	V-2			White Sands LC-33		GE / US Army

			Naval Research Laboratory	Suborbital	Solar ultraviolet, x-ray, chemical release	18 January	Launch failure
		Project Hermes launch, Apogee: 1.6 kilometers (0.99 mi)^[2]
22 January 22:55	Aerobee RTV-N-10			White Sands LC-35		US Navy

			Applied Physics Laboratory	Suborbital	Aeronomy	22 January	Successful
		Apogee: 88.5 kilometers (55.0 mi)^[2]
25 January 15:00	Aerobee RTV-N-10			White Sands LC-35		US Navy

			Applied Physics Laboratory	Suborbital	Ozone aeronomy	25 January	Successful
		Apogee: 90.1 kilometers (56.0 mi)^[2]
29 January	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	29 January	Successful
		Carried dogs^[2]
30 January	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	30 January	Successful^[2]
31 January	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	31 January	Successful^[2]

February

February launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
1 February	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	1 February	Successful^[2]
2 February	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	2 February	Successful^[2]
6 February 17:20	Aerobee RTV-N-10			White Sands LC-35		US Navy

			Applied Physics Laboratory	Suborbital	Earth photography	6 February	Successful
		Apogee: 98.2 kilometers (61.0 mi)^[2]

March

March launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
9 March 03:16	V-2			White Sands LC-33		GE / US Army

		Blossom IVE	Air Materiel Command	Suborbital	Ionospheric, solar, aeronomy	9 March	Launch failure
		Project Hermes launch, apogee: 3 kilometers (1.9 mi)^[2]
28 March 23:14	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			Air Research and Development Command	Suborbital	Aeronomy	28 March	Successful
		Apogee: 68 kilometers (42 mi)^[2]

April

April launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
12 April 17:26	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Solar radiation	12 April	Partial failure
		Apogee: 20 kilometers (12 mi)^[17]
18 April 18:39	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

		Aeromed 1	ARDC	Suborbital	Biomedical	18 April	Successful
		First biomedical Aerobee mission, carried monkey; apogee: 61.2 kilometers (38.0 mi)^[2]

May

May launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
29 May 19:46	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Ionospheric	29 May	Launch failure
		Apogee: 3.7 kilometers (2.3 mi)^[17]

June

June launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
8 June 00:11	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Solar X-ray, aeronomy	8 June	Successful
		Apogee: 88.5 kilometers (55.0 mi)^[17]
8 June 01:18	Aerobee XASR-SC-1			White Sands LC-35		US Army

			US Army Signal Corps	Suborbital	Aeronomy	8 June	Launch failure
		Apogee: 6.4 kilometers (4.0 mi)^[17]
9 June 06:11	Aerobee XASR-SC-1			White Sands LC-35		US Army

			USASC	Suborbital	Aeronomy	9 June	Successful
		Apogee: 67 kilometers (42 mi)^[17]
13 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	13 June	Successful^[2]
14 June 13:48	V-2			White Sands LC-33		GE / US Army

			NRL	Suborbital	Solar UV / X-ray	14 June	Launch failure
		Project Hermes launch, apogee: 0 kilometers (0 mi)^[2]
14 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	14 June	Successful^[2]
18 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	18 June	Successful^[2]
19 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	19 June	Successful^[2]
20 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	20 June	Successful^[2]
22 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	22 June	Successful^[2]
23 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	23 June	Successful^[2]
24 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	24 June	Successful^[2]
25 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	25 June	Successful^[2]
26 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	26 June	Successful^[2]
27 June	R-1			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	27 June	Successful^[2]
28 June 21:43	V-2			White Sands LC-33		GE / US Army

		Blossom IVF	ARDC	Suborbital	Solar / Aeronomy	28 June	Launch failure
		Final project Hermes launch, apogee: 5.8 kilometers (3.6 mi)^[2]

July

July launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
2 July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	2 July
		First of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Second of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Third of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Fourth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Fifth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Sixth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Seventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Eighth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Ninth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Tenth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Eleventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	Same day
		Twelfth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
22 July	R-1V			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Biological	22 July	Successful
		Maiden flight of the R-1V; carried dogs Dezik and Zhegan which were recovered^[2]
25 July 16:26	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Airglow research	25 July	Successful
		Apogee: 71.3 kilometers (44.3 mi)^[17]
27 July	R-2			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Missile test	27 July
		Last of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.^[16]^: 97
29 July	R-1B			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Biological	29 July	Launch failure
		Maiden flight of the R-1B; electrical failure, no payload recovery; carried dogs did not survive^[2]

August

August launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
7 August 16:36	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Ionospheric	7 August	Successful
		Apogee: 83.5 kilometers (51.9 mi)^[17]
7 August 18:00	Viking (first model)			White Sands LC-33 – Army Launch Area 1		US Navy

		Viking 7	NRL	Suborbital	Ionospheric / Solar	7 August	Successful
		Final flight of the first model Viking, apogee: 219 kilometers (136 mi)^[18]
15 August	R-1B			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Solar UV / Biological	15 August	Successful
		Carried dogs, recovered^[2]
19 August	R-1V			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Biological	19 August	Successful
		Final flight of the R-1V; carried dogs, recovered^[2]
22 August 19:00	V-2			White Sands LC-33		US Army

			US Army	Suborbital	Altitude test	22 August	Successful
		First all Army team after General Electric's contract concluded; apogee: 213.9 kilometers (132.9 mi)^[2]
28 August	R-1B			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Biological	28 August	Successful^[2]
30 August 22:40	Aerobee RTV-A-1b			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Rocket performance test	30 August	Successful
		Maiden (and only) flight of the RTV-A-1b, apogee: 75.7 kilometers (47.0 mi)^[17]

September

September launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
3 September	R-1B			Kapustin Yar		OKB-1

			OKB-1	Suborbital	Biological	3 September	Successful
		Final flight of the R-1B; carried dogs, recovered^[2]
13 September 11:37	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Aeronomy	13 September	Successful
		Apogee: 75.7 kilometers (47.0 mi)^[17]
20 September 16:31	Aerobee RTV-A-1			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

		Aeromed 2	ARDC	Suborbital	Biomedical	20 September	Successful
		Carried monkey, Yorick/Albert VI, and 11 mice, all recovered; apogee: 70.8 kilometers (44.0 mi)^[17]
27 September 00:06	Aerobee XASR-SC-1			White Sands LC-35		US Army

			USASC	Suborbital	Aeronomy	27 September	Successful
		Apogee: 68.9 kilometers (42.8 mi)^[17]

October

October launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
17 October 18:17	Aerobee RTV-A-1a			Holloman LC-A		US Air Force

			ARDC	Suborbital	Ionospheric	17 October	Successful
		Maiden flight of the RTV-A-1a, apogee: 114.3 kilometers (71.0 mi)
29 October 21:04	V-2			White Sands LC-33		US Army

			US Army	Suborbital	Aeronomy	29 October	Successful
		Apogee: 141.3 kilometers (87.8 mi)^[2]

November

November launches
Date and time (UTC)	Rocket		Flight number	Launch site		LSP
		Payload	Operator	Orbit	Function	Decay (UTC)	Outcome
		Remarks
1 November 09:45	Aerobee XASR-SC-1			White Sands LC-35		US Army

			USASC	Suborbital	Aeronomy	1 November	Successful
		Apogee: 66 kilometers (41 mi)^[17]
3 November 00:35	Aerobee XASR-SC-1			White Sands LC-35		US Army

			USASC	Suborbital	Aeronomy	3 November	Successful
		Apogee: 82.4 kilometers (51.2 mi)^[17]

← Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec →

Suborbital launch summary

By country

Launches by country
Country		Launches	Successes	Failures	Partial failures
	Soviet Union	35	33	1	1
	United States	26	19	6	1

By rocket

6

12

18

24

30

Launches by rocket
Rocket	Country	Launches	Successes	Failures	Partial failures	Remarks
V-2	United States	6	2	4	0
Viking (first model)	United States	1	1	0	0	Retired
Aerobee RTV-N-10	United States	3	3	0	0
Aerobee XASR-SC-1	United States	5	4	1	0
Aerobee RTV-A-1	United States	9	7	1	1
Aerobee RTV-A-1a	United States	1	1	0	0	Maiden flight
Aerobee RTV-A-1b	United States	1	1	0	0	Maiden flight, retired
R-1	Soviet Union	16	16	0	0
R-1B	Soviet Union	4	3	1	0	Maiden flight, retired
R-1V	Soviet Union	2	2	0	0	Maiden flight, retired
R-2	Soviet Union	13	12	0	1

References

^ Paul Voosen (24 July 2018). "Outer space may have just gotten a bit closer". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau8822. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai Mark Wade. "1951 Chronology". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^ Wayne O. Mattson; Martyn D. Tagg (June 1995). We Develop Missiles not Air! (PDF). Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico: Legacy Resource Management Program, Air Combat Command USAF. pp. 45–52.
^ ^a ^b Milton W. Rosen (1955). The Viking Rocket Story. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 317524549.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Boris Chertok (June 2006). Rockets and People, Volume II: Creating a Rocket Industry. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 946818748.
^ Mark Wade. "R-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
^ Chris Gebhardt (20 September 2016). "Aerobee-19: 65 years after animal flight that paved the way for Project Mercury". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^ Mark Wade. "R-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
^ ^a ^b John L. Chapman (1960). Atlas The Story of a Missile. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 492591218.
^ Will Eisner (1962). America's Space Vehicles A pictorial review. London: Oak Tree Press, Ltd. OCLC 916575496.
^ "Installation History 1950 - 1952". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
^ "Installation History 1953 - 1955". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
^ "Redstone Missile". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
^ ^a ^b George Ludwig (2011). Opening Space Research. Washington D.C.: geopress. OCLC 845256256.
^ Mark Wade. "R-11". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Asif A. Siddiqi. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 1001823253.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Mark Wade. "Aerobee". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
^ Mark Wade. "Viking Sounding Rocket". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 January 2021.

[ScienceJul2018-1] Paul Voosen (24 July 2018). "Outer space may have just gotten a bit closer". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau8822. Retrieved 1 April 2019.

[astro1951c-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai Mark Wade. "1951 Chronology". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 16 December 2020.

[mattson-3] Wayne O. Mattson; Martyn D. Tagg (June 1995). We Develop Missiles not Air! (PDF). Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico: Legacy Resource Management Program, Air Combat Command USAF. pp. 45–52.

[vikingstory-4] Milton W. Rosen (1955). The Viking Rocket Story. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 317524549.

[ranp-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Boris Chertok (June 2006). Rockets and People, Volume II: Creating a Rocket Industry. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 946818748.

[astror1-6] Mark Wade. "R-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 6 December 2020.

[aerobee65-7] Chris Gebhardt (20 September 2016). "Aerobee-19: 65 years after animal flight that paved the way for Project Mercury". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 December 2020.

[astror2-8] Mark Wade. "R-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 December 2020.

[Atlas-9] John L. Chapman (1960). Atlas The Story of a Missile. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 492591218.

[Asv-10] Will Eisner (1962). America's Space Vehicles A pictorial review. London: Oak Tree Press, Ltd. OCLC 916575496.

[redstone52-11] "Installation History 1950 - 1952". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.

[redstone53-12] "Installation History 1953 - 1955". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.

[redstone-13] "Redstone Missile". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.

[Ludwig-14] George Ludwig (2011). Opening Space Research. Washington D.C.: geopress. OCLC 845256256.

[Wade_R-11-15] Mark Wade. "R-11". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 17 February 2008.

[challenge-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Asif A. Siddiqi. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 1001823253.

[astroaer-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Mark Wade. "Aerobee". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 8 December 2020.

[astroviking-18] Mark Wade. "Viking Sounding Rocket". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 7 January 2021.

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v t e Timeline of spaceflight
Spaceflight before 1951
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