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Post-SSRI sexual dysfunction

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Post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD)[1] is an iatrogenic type of sexual dysfunction caused directly by the previous use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants. While apparently uncommon, it can last for months, years, or sometimes indefinitely after the discontinuation of SSRIs. It may represent a specific subtype of SSRI discontinuation syndrome.

Symptoms

One or more of the following sexual symptoms persist or begin after the discontinuation of SSRIs.

Prevalence

The true prevalence of PSSD has yet to be determined, although published calls have been made for post-marketing epidemiological studies [2].

Initial underestimation of the incidence of sexual side-effects

It is widely known that SSRIs can cause various types of sexual dysfunction. Initial studies found that such side effects occur in less than 10% of patients, but these studies relied on unprompted reporting, so the frequency of such problems was underestimated. In more recent studies, doctors have specifically asked about treatment-emergent sexual difficulties, and some have found that they are present in up to 60%[3] of patients. Spontaneous reporting methods are believed to result in up to 60% differences in sexual dysfunction rates as compared to rates obtained with systematic inquiry.[4]

Study data

While sexual dysfunction can be fairly common while taking SSRIs, the problem of persistent dysfunction after discontinuation does not appear to be as frequent, or at least not as well-known or researched. However, emerging evidence suggests that such persistence may in fact be fairly common and has been heretofore overlooked for a variety of reasons[5]. Onset of sexual problems often occurs during, and sometimes after, extended SSRI use but there have been reports of fairly rapid onset as well. It appears as though the majority of people regain their sexual function after stopping SSRIs, but some do not, and are faced with the persistent symptoms of post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD). In one study in which patients with SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction were switched to the dopaminergic antidepressant amineptine, 55% still had at least some type of sexual dysfunction after six months compared to 4% in the control group treated with amineptine alone.[6] In recent placebo controlled double-blind studies testing the efficacy of SSRIs for treating premture ejaculation, it has been noted that the ejaculation-delaying effect of the medications may last a long time after discontinuation in a large percentage of the trial participants[7][8][9]. Another study by the Cornell Medical Center in New York suggests that use of SSRI's damages fertility by causing damage to the DNA in the sperm.

It should be noted that persistent side effects are rarely reported by clinical trials. However, this could be attributed to the fact that trials are normally terminated on or before completion of treatment, which may have led to gross bias.

Case Reports

Published Reports

The first three cases of typical hyposexuality caused by PSSD were published in May 2006,[10] A fourth case was published soon after[11] and a fifth case was published in late 2007[12]. In early 2008, three more cases were published[13] in the Journal of Sexual Medicine, selected from a Yahoo Group comprised of over 1700 PSSD sufferers. There have also been several published cases of Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder (PGAD)[14][15][16] and premature ejaculation[17] that start and last long after withdrawal from SSRIs. These symptoms are quite different from, and should not be confused with, hypersexuality.

Surveillance and Reporting

To establish, monitor, and regulate causation of PSSD in individual patients, one approach in use by consulation-liaison psychiatrists is to assay measurable parameters of patient health (hormone levels, sexual functioning) with a survey or laboratory tests before and after administering a psychiatric drug, based on individual patient concern regarding each of the listed side effects. If PSSD develops, a correlation can be established between assay results and PSSD, guiding further treatment for the individual patient and others. A lack of education on drug side effects and the presence of clinical depression in a patient who is a candidate for antidepressant therapy can combine to reduce the patient's ability to advocate for tests.

Post-administration reporting of side effects provides useful data for development of new drugs and patient decisions. In America, adverse effects are reported with FDA forms, 3500 for optional use (patients can self-report using this form), and 3500A, for mandatory reporting.

Cause

It is currently not known precisely what causes PSSD. Unaware of the possibility of these long-lasting effects, most physicians automatically attribute them to psychological causes.

Fluoxetine (Prozac), the prototypical SSRI, is classified as a reproductive toxin[18] by the Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR), an expert panel at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences at the National Institutes of Health.

Animal studies

Experiments with rodents have shown that chronic treatment with SSRIs at a young age results in permanently decreased sexual behavior that persists into adulthood and is similar to PSSD.[19][20] At the cerebral molecular level there are profound and permanent reductions in both the rate-limiting serotonin synthetic enzyme, tryptophan hydroxylase, in dorsal raphe and in serotonin transporter (SERT) expression in cortex. It also appears as though PSSD might be transgenerationally inherited, at least in rodents, since maternal exposure to fluoxetine impairs sexual motivation in adult male mice[21]. It is not known whether PSSD in rodents exactly recapitulates the human condition, but the long term neurobehavioral consequences are very similar.[22]

Epigenetic effects

Long-term alterations in gene expression may result from disturbances in 5-HT neurotransmission in the brain.[23] For example, chronic treatment with fluoxetine (Prozac) has been shown to cause persistent desensitization of 5HT1A receptors even after removal of the SSRI.[24] These long-term adaptive changes in 5-HT receptors, as well as more complex, global changes, are likely to be mediated through alterations of gene expression.[25][26][27][28][29] Some of these gene expression changes are a result of altered DNA structure caused by chromatin remodeling,[30][31] specifically epigenetic modification of histones[32] and gene silencing by DNA methylation due to increased expression of the methyl binding proteins MeCP2 and MBD1.[33] Altered gene expression and chromatin remodeling are also involved in the mechanism of action of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).[34][35]

Because described gene expression changes are complex, and can involve persistent modifications of chromatin structure, it has been suggested that SSRI use can result in persistently altered cerebral gene expression leading to compromised catecholaminergic neurotransmission and neuroendocrine disturbances,[10] such as decreased testosterone levels[36] and reduced sperm counts.[37] However, without detailed neuropsychopharmacological, pharmacogenomic and toxicogenomic[38] research, the definitive cause remains unknown.

Relationship to "Chemical Imbalance" theory

Some critics of SSRIs claim that the widely-disseminated television and print advertising of SSRIs promotes an inaccurate message, oversimplifying what these medications actually do and deceiving the public.[39] Much of the criticism stems from questions about the validity of claims that SSRIs work by correcting chemical imbalances. Without tools to accurately measure neurotransmitter levels and to allow for continuous monitoring during treatment, it is difficult to know if one is correctly targeting a deficient neurotransmitter (i.e. correcting an imbalance), reaching a desirable level, or even introducing too much of a particular neurotransmitter. Thus, it has been argued that SSRIs can actually cause chemical imbalances and abnormal brain states.[40] One possible mechanism is by inhibition of dopaminergic neurotransmission,[41] resulting in described persistent sexual dysfunction. This may suggest possible treatment options, reviewed theoretically in 2002.[42]

Other drugs

Antipsychotics are also known to cause sexual dysfunction. Many antipsychotics affect serotonin neurochemistry, much like SSRIs. This could be a possible culprit in sexual dysfunction in such cases. Current antipsychotics predominantly affect dopamine neurochemistry; this can also have an effect on sexual response.

References

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  2. ^ Kauffman, RP. Persistent Sexual Side Effects after Discontinuation of Psychotropic Medications Primary Psychiatry. 2008;15:24.
  3. ^ Zajecka J, Mitchell S, Fawcett J. Treatment-emergent changes in sexual function with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors as measured with the rush sexual inventory Psychopharmacol. Bull. 1997;33:755-60. PMID 9493488.
  4. ^ Balon, R. SSRI-associated sexual dysfunction Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1504-1509. PMID 16946173.
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  42. ^ Keltner NL, McAfee KM, Taylor CL. Mechanisms and treatments of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction. Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2002 Jul-Sep;38(3):111-6. PMID 12385082.
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