Manusmriti
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Manusmṛti or Manusmriti (Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is the earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism.It is one of the most controversial works of Hindu literature owing to its discrimination against women and Shudras [1].[2][3] Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, it was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an English Orientalist and judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta.[4] The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage called Manu to a group of seers, or rishis, who beseech him to tell them the "law of all the social classes" (1.2). Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it.[5]
According to Hindu tradition, the Manusmriti records the words of Brahma.[6] By attributing the words to supernatural forces, the text takes on an authoritative tone as a statement on Dharma, in opposition to previous texts in the field, which were more scholarly.[7]
Date and context
The text shows the obvious influence of previous Dharmasutras and Arthasastric work. In particular, the Manu Smriti was the first to adopt the term vyavaharapadas. These eighteen Titles of Law or Grounds for Litigation make up more than one fifth of the work and deal primarily with matters of the king, state, and judicial procedure.[7] Though most scholars had previously considered the text a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin caste somewhere in Northern India.[5]
A range of historical opinion generally dates composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[8] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.[9] In Thapar's view, "The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."[10]
The dharma class of texts were also noteworthy because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasized dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.[11]
Structure
The original treatise consisted of one thousand chapters of law, polity, and pleasure given by Brahmā. His son, Manu, learns these lessons and proceeds to teach his own students, including Bhrigu. Bhrigu then relays this information in the Manu Smriti, to an audience of his own pupils.[12]
This original narrative was subdivided later into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.[13] The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu also introduced a unique “transitional verse” which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.
The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu’s disciple, Bhrigu, and an audience of his own students. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu’s teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first to ask about how Brahmins can be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.[14]
Table of Contents
This Table of Contents comes from Olivelle's translation of the Manu Smriti and provides the transitional verses between each subject:[15]
1. Origin of the World (1.1-119)
2. Sources of the Law (2.1-24)
"I have described to you above succinctly the source of the Law, as also the origin of this whole world. Learn now the Laws of the social classes." (2.25)
3. Dharma of the Four Social Classes (2.25-11.266)
- 3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.25-10.131)
- 3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.26-9.336)
- 3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.26-6.97)
"I have explained to you above the fourfold Law of Brahmins, a Law that is holy and brings imperishable rewards after death. Listen now to the Law of kings." (6.97)
- 3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.1-9.325)
"I have described above in its entirety the eternal rules of action for the king. What follows, one should understand, are the rules of action for the Vaiśyas and Śūdras in their proper order." (9.325)
- 3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vaiśyas and Śūdras (9.325-36)
"I have described above the splendid rules of action for the social classes outside times of adversity. Listen now to the rules for them in the proper order for times of adversity." (9.336)
- 3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1-129)
"I have described above the entire set of rules pertaining to the Law of the four classes. Next, I will explain the splendid rules pertaining to penance." (10.131)
- 3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1-265)
"You have described this Law for the four classes in its entirety, O Sinless One! Teach us accurately the ultimate consummation of the fruits of actions." (12.1)
4. Determination Regarding Engagement in Action (12.3-116)
"Bhrgu, the son of Manu and the very embodiment of the Law, said to those great seers: ‘Listen to the determination with respect to engagement in action.’" (12.2)
- 4.1 Fruits of Action (12.3-81)
"I have declared to you above all the fruits arising from actions. Listen now to these rules of action for a Brahmin, rules that secure the supreme good." (12.82)
- 4.2 Rules of Action for Supreme God (12.83-115)
"I have explained to you above all the best means of securing the supreme good. A Brahmin who does not deviate from them obtains the highest state." (12.116)
Nature and Purpose
The Manu Smriti is written with a focus on the “shoulds” of dharma rather than on the actuality of everyday practice in India at the time. Still, its practical application should not be underestimated. Through intermediate forces such as the instruction of scholars, the teachings did indeed have indirect effect on major segments of the Indian population. It is also an invaluable point of common reference in scholarly debates.[16]
It seems likely that the book was written in a manner which was very mindful to the dangers facing the Brahmin community during a time of much change and social upheaval. A renewed alliance between the Brahmin and Kṣatra communities is clearly a goal reflected in the introduction of the vyavahārapadas.[17] The emphasis which this topic receives can be seen as an offering of solidarity from the religious community to the ruling class.
The essence of Manu Smriti
The essence of the Manu Smriti can be resume in the chapter X :
62. Dying, without the expectation of a reward, for the sake of Brahmanas and of cows, or in the defence of women and children, secures beatitude to those excluded (from the Aryan community, vahya.)
63. Abstention from injuring (creatures)[ahimsa, non-violence], veracity, abstention from unlawfully appropriating (the goods of others), purity, and control of the organs, Manu has declared to be the summary of the law for the four castes [Colors – Varna : Aryan community].
Commentaries on Manu
There have been numerous commentaries written on the Manu Smṛti. Some of the major commentaries are listed below:
Bhāruci
Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11 century,[18] Olivelle places him in the 8th century,[19] and Derrett places him between 600-650 CE[19]. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early seventh century CE to the early eleventh century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.
Medhātithi
Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE.[20]
Economic Ideas
Economic Ideas Embedded in Manusmriti has been given in detail by Ratan Lal Basu.[21]
Outcast (Dasyu)
Manusmriti has given the definition to known who is Noble (Arya) and Dasyu ("demonic", no Arya, "Outcast") with these words, in the chapter X :
58. Behaviour unworthy of an Aryan, harshness, cruelty, and habitual neglect of the prescribed duties betray in this world a man of impure origin.
So, Manusmriti has a symbolic vision of his hierarchy : man is than he become.
Views and criticism
Manu Smriti is one of the most heavily criticized of the scriptures of Hinduism, having been attacked by colonial scholars, modern liberals, Hindu reformists, Dalit advocates, feminists[22] , Marxists and certain groups of traditional Hindus, namely Smarta. some believe the text to be authoritative, but others do not. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses.
However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is not authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati[23] and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami[24], hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. “It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living" [25]
Laws of the Manusmriti for Shudra (Arya/Noble not twice-borned)
The Code of Manu does not mention or sanction sati[29] (widow burning) though it does prescribe life-long asceticism for most widows.[30] It is necessary to precise than a child of brahmin or a girl not married are shudra (a shudra is Arya, Noble, also) : a man who has learned Veda is twice-borned (Dvija), and not before [31]. A man become than he is : twice-borned. It is a cultural selection and not an eugenist, nationalist or genetic system [32]. And if a brahmin prefers the easy life of Shudra (because brahmin life is the most ascetic way of life in the society), he will become dasyu, demonic human, outcast (without "color", Varna), and a Shudra is not an outcast.
1. For the welfare of humanity the supreme creator Brahma, gave birth to the Brahmins from his mouth, the Kshatriyas from his shoulders, the Vaishyas from his thighs and Shudras from his feet. [33]
2. God said the duty of a Shudra is to serve the upper varnas faithfully with devotion and without grumbling. [34].
3. The Brahmin should never invite persons of other varnas for food. In case, the latter begs the Brahmin for food, the Brahmin may give them some left-over. Even these left-over must be served not by the Brahmin but by his servants outside the house. [35]
4. He who instructs Shudra pupils and he whose teacher is a Shudra shall become disqualified for being invited to a shradha. [36]
5. A Shudra is unfit of receive education. The upper varnas should not impart education or give advice to a Shudra.It is not necessary that the Shudra should know the laws and codes and hence need not be taught. Violators will go to as amrita hell. [37]
6. "Let him not dwell in a country where the rulers are Shudras." [38]
7. Brahmin must not read the Vedas in the presence of the Shudras. [39]
8. Any country, where there are no Brahmins, of where they are not happy will get devastated and destroyed.[40]
9. A Brahmana who is only a Brahman by descent i.e., one who has neither studied nor performed any other act required by the Vedas may, at the king’s pleasure, interpret the law to him i.e., act as the judge, but never a Shudra . [41]
10. The Kingdom of that monarch, who looks on while a Shudra settles the law, will sink low like a cow in the morass. [42]
11. Any Brahmin, who enslaves or tries to enslave a Brahmin, is liable for a penalty of no less than 600 PANAS. A Brahmin can order a Shudra to serve him without any remuneration because the Shudra is created by Brahma to serve the Brahmins. Even if a Brahmin frees a Shudra from slavery the Shudra continues to be a slave as he is created for slavery. Nobody has the right to free him. [43]
12. A Shudra who insults a twice born man with gross invectives shall have his tongue cut out; for he is of low origin. [44]
13. If Shudra mentions the names and castes of the (twice born) with contumely, an iron nail, ten fingers long, shall be thrust red hot into his mouth. But he have another choice : live in the forest. [45]
14. If a Shudra arrogantly presumes to preach religion to Brahmins, the king shall have poured burning oil in his mouth and ears. [46]
15. A Shudra who has an intercourse with a woman of the higher caste guarded or unguarded shall be punished n the following manner ; if she was unguarded, he loses the offending part; if she was guarded then he should be put to death and his property confiscated." [47]
16. A Brahman may compel a Shudra, whether bought or unbought, to do servile work for he is created by the creator to be the slave of a Brahmana.[48]
17. No Shudra should have property of his own, He should have nothing of his own. The existence of a wealthy Shudra is bad for the Brahmins. A Brahman may take possession of the goods of a Shudra. [49]
18. A Brahman may seize without hesitation, if he be in distress for his subsistence, the goods of his Shudra. The Shudra can have only one occupation. [50]
19. A Shudra who wants to just fill his stomach may serve a Vaishya. If he wants a permanent means of living he can serve a Kshatriya. But if he wants to go to heaven or wants higher or superior birth in the next generation he must serve a Brahmin. [51]
20. The most sacred duty of a Shudra is to serve the Brahmins, always, reciting the words "Brahman" with utmost devotion. Such a Shudra will get salvation. Otherwise he will die a worst death and will go to the worst hell. [52] 21. But let a (Shudra) serve Brahmans, either for the sake of heaven, or with a view to both (this life and the next) for he who is called the servant of a Brahman thereby gains all his ends. [53]
22. The service of Brahmans alone is declared (to be) an excellent occupation for a Shudra for whatever else besides this he may perform will bear him no fruit. [54]
23. Brahmins to give Shudras food leftovers, old torn clothes, spoiled grain and old utensils [55]
24. No superfluous collection of wealth must be made by a Shudra, even though he has power to make it, since a servile man, who has amassed riches, becomes proud, and, by his insolence or neglect, gives pain to Brahmins. [56]
25. A Brahmin shall never beg from a Shudra, property for (performing) a sacrifice i.e., for religious purposes. All marriages with the Shudra were prescribed. Marriage with a woman belonging to any of three other classes was forbidden.
Laws of the Manusmriti for Women
1. Women are liers, corrupt, greedy, and unvirtuous. [59]
2. Even for a woman, the performance of the sanskaras are necessary and they should be performed. But they should be performed without uttering the Veda Mantras." [60]
3. It is the nature of women to seduce men in this (world); the wise are never unguarded in the company of males. [61]
4. For women are able to lead astray in (this) world not only a fool, but even a learned man, and (to make) him a slave of desire and anger." [62]
5. One should not sit in a lonely place with one's mother, sister or daughter, for the senses are powerful, and master even a learned man." [63]
6. A Brahmin male by virtue of his birth becomes the first husband of all women in the universe. [64]
7. By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house." [65]
8. In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent. [66]
9. She must not seek to separate herself from her father, husband or son; by leaving them. She would make them both (her own and her husband's) family incompatible. [67]
10. A Brahman must never eat food given at a sacrifice performed by a woman. [68]
11. Sacrifices performed by women are inauspicious and not acceptable to god. They should therefore be avoided. [69]
12. She must always be cheerful, clever in management of her household affairs, careful in cleaning her utensils and economical in expenditure. [70]
13. The husband who wedded her with sacred mantras is always a source of happiness to his wife, both in season and out of season, in this world and in the next. [71]
14. Though destitute or virtuous, or seeking pleasure elsewhere, or devoid of good qualities, yet a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife. [72]
15. No sacrifice, no vow, no fast must be performed by women, apart from their husbands. If a wife obeys her husband, she will for that reason alone be exalted in heaven. [73]
16. At her pleasure let her (i.e. widow) enunciate her body, by living voluntarily on pure flowers, roots and fruits, but let her not when her lord is deceased, even pronounce the name of another man. [74]
17. But a widow, who from a wish to bear children, slights her deceased husband by marrying again, brings disgrace on herself here below, and shall be excluded from the seat of her lord (in heaven). [75]
18. A woman must always maintain her virtue and surrender her body to her husband only, ever if she is married off to an ugly person or even a leper. [76]
19. Through their passion for men, through their mutable temper, through their natural heartlessness, they become disloyal towards their husbands, however, carefully they may be guarded in this (world). [77]
20. Knowing their disposition, which the Lord of Creatures laid in them at the creation, to be such, (every) man should most strenuously exert himself to guard them. [78]
21. When creating them, Manu allotted to women (a love of their) bed, (of heart) seat and (of) ornament, impure desires, wrath, dishonesty, malice, and bad conduct. [79]
22. Killing of a woman, a Shudra or an atheist is not sinful. Woman is an embodiment of the worst desires, hatred, deceit, jealousy and bad character. Women should never be given freedom. [80]
23. Women have no right to study the Vedas. That is why their Sanskars are performed without Veda Mantras. women have no knowledge of religion because they have no right to know the Vedas. The uttering of Veda Mantras, they are as unclean as untruth is." [81]
24. The husband is declared to be one with the wife, which means there could be no separation once a woman is married. [82]
25. A wife, a son and a slave, they three are declared to have no property: the wealth which they earn is (acquired)for him to whom they belong. [83]
26. None of the acts of women can be taken as good and reasonable. [84]
27. Day and night women must be kept in dependence by males (of their families), and, if they attach themselves to sexual enjoyments, they must be kept under one's control. [85]
28. Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth, and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence." [86]
29. Women must particularly be guarded against evil inclinations, however trifling (they may appear); for, if they are not guarded, they will bring sorrow on to families." [87]
30. Considering that the highest duty of all castes even weak husbands (must) scribe to guard their wives. [88]
31. A woman shall not perform the daily sacrifices prescribed by the Vedas. Then according to [89] if she does it, she will go to hell.[90] From- [91]
A Shudra was not to have a relation with a woman of the higher classes . [92]1, 2 ,3, 4In the matter of acquiring learning and knowledge Manu’s successors went much beyond him in the cruelty of their punishment of the Shudra for studying the Veda. For instance, Katyayana lays down that if a Shudra over heard the Veda or ventured to utter a word of the Veda, the king shall cut his tongue in twain and pour hot molten lead in his ear. Manu’s law book and its strict compliance by the Brahmans, it may be summarized that men and women are not born equal. There is no room for individual merit and no consideration of individual justice. If the individual has the privilege, it is not because it is due to his/her personally.
The privilege goes with class, and if it is his/her good luck to enjoy it, he/she is destined to be born in the privileged class. On the other hand, if an individual is suffering in a class, it is because he belongs to that class. Thereby, logically speaking from Manusmriti’s point of view, the suffering of Shudras and women is because of their being part of their caste and sex respectively. Manu’s ‘social order’ breeds 'social out-caste,’ which in turn dishes out ‘social injustice’ to the underprivileged. Narda’s ‘Smriti’ (law book), openly advocate slavery, but since Varnashram (a creation of caste system by the Manu) was critical and deviously interwoven into religion, to subjugate the Shudras through superstitions like opium to an addict, the Brahmans let the slaves die.[93]
In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar asserted that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.[94] However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.[95] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"[96] Hinduism does not evangelize.[97]
Notes
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=-EkjH4S_uawC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265&dq=manusmriti+about&source=bl&ots=PvLHifkfbF&sig=ylD8YcQshsFcP9341Vx-BqkR9BA&hl=en&ei=rMBhS7L7FsyOkQXM9enzCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CAwQ6AEwAg#
- ^ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=-EkjH4S_uawC&pg=PA265&dq=manusmriti+and+women&cd=3#v=onepage&q=manusmriti%20and%20women&f=false.
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=B064aJShLDgC&pg=PT150&dq=manusmriti+women&lr=&cd=6#v=onepage&q=manusmriti%20women&f=false
- ^ Jones's translation is available online as The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.
- ^ a b Olivelle, "Literary History," p. 16.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xx.
- ^ a b Olivelle, Literary History, p. 17.
- ^ For composition between 200 BCE and 200 CE see: Avari, p. 142. For dating of composition "between the second century BCE and third century CE" see: Flood (1996), p. 56. For dating of Manu Smriti in "final form" to the second century CE, see: Keay, p. 103. For dating as completed some time between 200 BCE and 100 CE see: Hopkins, p. 74. For probable origination during the second or third centuries AD, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85. For the text as preserved dated to around the 1st century BCE. see: Encyclopedia Britannica Concise, retrieved 2007-06-24
- ^ For significance of post-empire social uncertainty as a factor in the development of the Code of Manas, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85.
- ^ Tharpar (2002), p. 279.
- ^ For the dharmashastras, including Manu Smriti, as the starting point for an independent tradition not dependent on Vedic origins, see: Hopkins, p. 74.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxi-xxii.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxvii.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xxv.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxviii-xxix.
- ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xxli.
- ^ Olivelle, Literary History, p. 19.
- ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharmaśāstra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part I, 566.
- ^ a b Olivelle, Patrick, "Dharmaśāstra: A Literary History", 29.
- ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharmaśāstra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part II, 583.
- ^ Ratan Lal Basu & Rajkumar Sen, 2008, Ancient Indian Economic Thought, Relevance for Today, ISBN 81-316-0125-0, Rawat Publications, New Delhi
- ^ For objections to the work by feminists, see: Avari, pp. 142-143.
- ^ The Light of Truth, Chapter 4
- ^ Bhagavad Gita As It Is, Chapter 16 Text 7 - "...Even up to today, those who are Hindu follow the Manu-samhita..."
- ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, vol. 1.
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=B064aJShLDgC&pg=PT150&dq=manusmriti+women&lr=&cd=6#v=onepage&q=manusmriti%20women&f=false
- ^ http://alamsha.sulekha.com/blog/post/2009/05/manu-smriti-laws-of-manu.htm
- ^ http://www.bhagwanvalmiki.com/manu-smriti.htm
- ^ see the full wikipedia article on sati (practice)
- ^ (Manu V.160ff.)
- ^ L'hindouisme, anthropologie d'une civilisation, Madeleine Biardeau, Flammarion.
- ^ L'hindouisme, anthropologie d'une civilisation, Madeleine Biardeau, Flammarion.
- ^ (Manu's code I-31,)
- ^ (Manu 1-91) Ma
- ^ (Manu II2).
- ^ (Manu III. 156.)
- ^ (Manu IV-78 to 81)
- ^ (Manu IV. 61)
- ^ (Manu IV. 99.)
- ^ (Manu VIII-20 to 22)
- ^ Insert footnote text here
- ^ (Manu VIII. 21.)
- ^ (Manu VIII-50,56 and 59)
- ^ (Manu VIII. 270.)
- ^ (Manu VIII. 271.)
- ^ Manu VIII. 272.)
- ^ (Manu VIII. 374.)
- ^ (Manu VIII. 413.)
- ^ (ManuVIII-417 & X129)
- ^ (Manu VIII. 417)
- ^ (ManuIX334 & 335)
- ^ (Manu X-121)
- ^ (Manu X. 122.)
- ^ (Manu X. 123.)
- ^ (Manu X-125)
- ^ (Manu X. 129.
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=B064aJShLDgC&pg=PT150&dq=manusmriti+women&lr=&cd=6#v=onepage&q=manusmriti%20women&f=false
- ^ http://www.bhagwanvalmiki.com/manu-smriti.htm
- ^ (Manu II 1)
- ^ (Manu II. 60)
- ^ (Manu II. 213)
- ^ (Manu II.214)
- ^ (Manu II. 215)
- ^ (Manu III. 14)
- ^ (Manu IV. 147)
- ^ (Manu IV. 148)
- ^ (Manu IV. 149)
- ^ (Manu IV. 205)
- ^ (Manu IV. 206)
- ^ (Manu V. 150)
- ^ (Manu V1. 53)
- ^ (Manu V. 154)
- ^ (Manu V. 155)
- ^ (Manu V. 157)
- ^ (Manu V. 161)
- ^ (Manu IX. 14)
- ^ (Manu IX. 15)
- ^ (Manu IX. 16)
- ^ (Manu IX. 17)
- ^ (Manu IX. 17 and V. 47, 147)
- ^ (Manu IX. 18)
- ^ (Manu IX. 45)
- ^ (Manu IX. 416)
- ^ (Manu X.4)
- ^ (Manu XI2)
- ^ (Manu XI. 3)
- ^ (Manu XI. 5)
- ^ (Manu XI. 6)
- ^ IX.37
- ^ (Manu XI. 36)1, 2, 3, 4
- ^ Casteism: The Eighth Worst Wonder by Dr. S. L. Virdi, Pages-39-43)
- ^ (Manu XI. 24.)
- ^ ."5From-Casteism: The Eighth Worst Wonder by Dr. S. L. Virdi, Pages-39-43)
- ^ Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India
- ^ Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford University Press (1960) p. 200.
- ^ John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from A Guide to Sanchi, citing p. 11. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). Pp. 7-29 on line, Project South Asia.
- ^ K. V. Rao, Socialism, Secularism, and Democracy in India, pp. 28-30. Nagendra K. Singh, Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity, p. 35. Martinus Nijhoff (1986) ISBN 9024733022
References
- Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Kulke, Hermann (1986). A History of India. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-577-5.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-195-17146-2.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24225-4.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Translation by G. Bühler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV). Oxford. Available online as The Laws of Manu
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Olivelle, Patrick (2004). The Law Code of Manu. New York: OUP. ISBN 0192802712.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Olivelle, Patrick. "Dharmasastra: A Literary History"
- Kane, P.V., History of Dharmasastra