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American alligator
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Clade: Archosauromorpha
Clade: Archosauriformes
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Alligatoridae
Genus: Alligator
Species:
A. mississippiensis
Binomial name
Alligator mississippiensis
(Daudin, 1802 [originally Crocodilus])
American Alligator range map
Synonyms
  • Crocodilus mississipiensis Daudin, 1802

The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), sometimes referred to colloquially as a gator or common alligator, is a large crocodilian reptile endemic to the Southeastern United States. It is one of two living species in the genus Alligator within the family Alligatoridae and larger than the other extant alligator species, the Chinese alligator. On average the American alligator is between 3.2 metres (10 ft) to 4 metres (13 ft) in length and weighing around 315 kg (694 lb) but capable of attaining larger sizes. Females however are smaller, around 2.6 metres (8.5 ft) in length. The American alligator inhabits freshwater wetlands, such as marshes and cypress swamps from Texas to North Carolina. It is distinguished from the sympatric American crocodile by its broader snout, with overlapping jaws and darker coloration, and is less tolerant of seawater but more tolerant of colder climates.

Alligators are apex predators and consume fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Hatchlings feed mostly on invertebrates. Alligators also play important roles in wetland ecosystems through the creation of "alligator holes" which provide wetter or drier habitats for other organisms. During the breeding season, males bellow and use infrasound to attract females. Eggs are laid in a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. Young are born with yellow bands around their bodies and are protected by their mother.

The American alligator is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Historially, hunting has decimated their population and the American alligator was listed as an endangered species by the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Subsequent conservation efforts have allowed their numbers to increase and the species was removed from the list in 1987. Alligators are now harvested for their skins and meat. The species is the official state reptile of three states: Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Alligator prenasalis fossil

The American alligator was first classified by French zoologist François Marie Daudin as Crocodilus mississipiensis in 1801. Georges Cuvier classified the genus Alligator in 1807.[2] The American alligator shares this genus with the Chinese alligator. They are grouped in the family Alligatoridae with the caimans. The superfamily Alligatoroidea includes all crocodilians (fossil and extant) that are more closely related to the American alligator than to either the Nile crocodile or the gharial.[3] Members of this superfamily first arose in the Late Cretaceous. Leidyosuchus of Alberta is the earliest known genus. Fossil alligatoriods have been found throughout Eurasia as land bridges across both the North Atlantic and the Bering Strait have connected North America to Eurasia during the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Alligators and caimans spilt in North America during the late Cretaceous and the latter reached South America by the early Tertiary, before the closure of the Isthmus of Panama during the Mio-Pliocene era. The Chinese alligator likely descended from a linage that crossed Beringia during the late Tertiary. The modern American alligator is well represented in the fossil record of the Pleistocene.[4]

Characteristics

Alligator skull
Defensive alligator with mouth open

Wild alligators range from long and slender to short and robust, possibly due to variations in factors like growth rate, diet and climate. Alligators have broad snouts, especially in captive individuals. When the jaws are closed, the edge of the upper jaws covers the lower teeth which fit into the jaws' depressions. Like the spectacled caiman, this species has a bony nasal ridge, though it is less prominent.[5] The teeth number from 74–84.[5] Dorsally, adult alligators may be olive, brown, gray or black in color while their undersides are cream colored.[6]

Some alligators are missing an inhibited gene for melanin, which makes them albino. These alligators are extremely rare and almost impossible to find in the wild. They could survive only in captivity as they are very vulnerable to the sun and predators.[7]

Size

In adult male American alligators, length averages 3.4 m (11 ft) while in smaller females, it averages 2.6 m (8.5 ft). Occasionally, a large, old male may measure in excess of 4 m (13 ft).[8][9] There have been reports during the 19th and 20th centuries of larger males reaching 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft).[5] The largest reported size was a male killed in 1890 on Marsh Island, Louisiana and reportedly measured at 5.8 m (19 ft) in length but no voucher specimen was available since the alligator was left on a muddy bank after having been taped due to having been too massive to relocate.[9] Adult males may weigh around 227 kg (500 lb) while females weigh around 91 kg (201 lb).[10]

Blue Hole, on Big Pine Key, Florida

Distribution and habitat

American alligators are only found in the Southeastern United States, from Great Dismal Swamp in North Carolina, south to Everglades National Park in Florida and west to the southern tip of Texas. They are found in the U.S. states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, and Oklahoma. Alligators inhabit swamps, streams, rivers, ponds and lakes. Females and juveniles are also found in Carolina Bays and other seasonal wetlands. While they prefer freshwater, alligators sometimes enter more brackish water.[11] However they are less tolerant of saltwater than crocodiles as the salt glands on their tongues are non-functioning.[12] One study of alligators in north-central Florida found that males preferred open lake water during the spring while females used both swampy and open water areas. During summer, males still preferred open water while females stuck to the swamps to construct their nests and lay their eggs. Both sexes may den underneath banks or clumps of trees during the winter.[13]

Biology and behavior

An alligator skull (AMNH 1736) found in western Nebraska and dating back to the Middle Miocene, a time when the region's environment was much like that of the Everglades

Alligators modify some wetland habitat, in flat areas such as the Everglades, by constructing small ponds known as "alligator holes". These create wetter or drier habitats for other organisms, such as plants, fish, invertabrates, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In the limestone depressions of cypress swamps, alligator holes tend to be large and deep while those in marl prairies and rocky glades are usually small and shallow and those in peat depressions of ridge and slough wetlands are more variable. Man-made holes do not appear to have as large an effect.[14] Alligators also may control the long term vegetation dynamics in wetlands by reducing the population of small mammals, particularly nutria, which may otherwise over-graze marsh vegetation.[15] In this way, they provide a vital ecological service that may be important in reducing rates of coastal wetland losses in Louisiana.[16]

X-ray video of a female American alligator showing contraction of the lungs while breathing.

American alligators are less vulnerable to cold than American crocodiles. Unlike the crocodile, which would immediately succumb to the cold and drown in water of 45 °F (7.2 °C), an alligator can survive in such temperatures for some time without any signs of discomfort.[17] It is thought that this adaptiveness is the reason why American alligators spread farther north than the American crocodile.[17] In fact, the American alligator is found farther from the equator and is more equipped to deal with cooler conditions than any other crocodilian.[18] When the water begins to freeze, alligators stick their snouts though the surface which allows them to breathe above the ice.[11]

When on land, the alligator moves either by sprawling or walking, the latter involving the reptile lifting its belly off the ground. The sprawling of alligators and other crocodilians is not identical to the sprawling of salamanders and lizards, being similar to walking. Thus the two forms of territorial locomotion can be term the "low walk" and the "high walk". Unlike most another land vertebrates, alligators increase their speed through the distal rather than proximal ends of their limbs.[19] In the water, alligators swim like fish; moving their pelvic regions and tails from side to side.[20] American alligators held the record as having the strongest laboratory-measured bite of any living animal, measured at up to 9,452 newtons (2,125 lbf) in laboratory conditions. It should be noted that this experiment had not at the time of the paper published been replicated in any other crocodilians and the same laboratory was able to measure a greater bite force in saltwater crocodiles.[21][22] During respiration, airflow is unidirectional; looping through the lungs during inhalation and exhalation.[23]

An alligator can live up to 30 to 50 years.

Alligators are apex predators capable of killing large terrestrial prey.

Hunting and diet

The American alligator is considered the apex predator throughout its range. They are opportunists and their diet is determined largely by both the size and age of the predating alligator and the size and availability of prey. Most alligators will eat a wide variety of animals, including invertebrates, fish, birds, turtles, snakes, amphibians and mammals, in their life cycle. Hatchlings mostly feed on invertebrates such as insects, larvae, snails, spiders, and worms. As they grow, alligators gradually move on to larger prey. Once an alligator reaches adulthood, any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey, due to the size and power of the alligator. However, most animals captured by alligators are considerable smaller than the alligator itself.[5] Stomach contents show that, amongst native mammals, muskrats and raccoons are some of the most commonly eaten species. In Louisiana, where introduced nutria (a large aquatic rodent) are common, they are perhaps the most regular prey for adult alligators, although it is only larger adults alligators that commonly eat this species.[15]

Other animals may occasionally be eaten, even large deer or feral wild boars, but these are not normally part of the diet. Occasionally, domestic animals, including dogs and calves, are taken as available but are secondary to wild and feral prey.[5] Water birds, such as herons and egrets, storks and waterfowl, are taken when possible. Occasionally, unwary adult birds are grabbed and eaten by alligators, but most predation on bird occurs on unsteady fledgling birds in late summer as they attempt to make their first flights near the water's edge. Other prey, including snakes, lizards and various invertebrates are eaten occasionally by adults.[8]

Fish and other aquatic prey taken in the water or at the water edge form the major part of alligator's diet and may be eaten at any time of the day or night. Adult alligators also spend considerable time hunting on land, up to 50 m (170 feet) from water, ambushing terrestrial animals on trailsides and road shoulders. Usually, terrestrial hunting occurs on nights with warm temperatures.[24] When hunting terrestrial prey, alligators may also ambush them from the edge of the water by grabbing them and pulling the prey into the water, the preferred method of predation of larger crocodiles.[8] The teeth of the alligator are designed to grip prey but can not rip or chew flesh like dentition of some other predators (such as canids and felids). The alligator is capable of biting though a turtle's shell or a moderately sized mammal bone.[25]

Juvenile American alligator swimming, showing the distinctive yellow striping found on juveniles

Reproduction

Alligator bellow
Alligator bellow, ogg/Vorbis format.
Another alligator bellow
Alligator bellow, ogg/Vorbis format.
Alligator hiss
Alligator hiss ogg/Vorbis format.
Problems playing these files? See media help.

The breeding season begins in the spring. Although alligators have no vocal cords, males bellow loudly to attract mates and warn off other males during this time by sucking air into their lungs and blowing it out in intermittent, deep-toned roars. Male alligators are also known to use infrasound during their mating behavior. One of their routines is to engage in bellowing at this frequency while their head and tail are above the water. With their midsection very slightly submerged, they cause the surface of the water that is directly over their back to literally "sprinkle" from their infrasound bellowing, in a so-called "water dance".[26] Recently it was discovered that on spring nights alligators gather in large numbers for group courtship, the so-called "alligator dances".[27]

Alligator nest and young in Florida

The female builds a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. After she lays her 20 to 50 white eggs, about the size of a goose egg, she covers them with more vegetation, which heats as it decays, helping to keep the eggs warm. This differs from Nile crocodiles which lay their eggs in pits.[17]

The temperature at which alligator eggs develop determines their sex (see temperature-dependent sex determination). Those eggs which are hatched at a temperature of 34 °C (93 °F) or more become males, while those at a temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) or lower become female. The nests built on levees are warmer and thus produce males while the cooler nests of wet marsh produce females.[28] The female will remain near the nest throughout the 65-day incubation period, protecting it from intruders. When the young begin to hatch the mother quickly digs them out and carries them to the water in her mouth.[5]

The young are tiny replicas of adult alligators with a series of yellow bands around their bodies that serve as camouflage.[5] Hatchlings gather into pods and are guarded by their mother and keep in contact with her through vocalizations. High-pitched distress calls signal danger and the mother will rush to their aid. Hisses signal aggression and non-distressed grunts keep each hatchling in contact with each other. Young alligators eat small fish, frogs, crayfish and insects.[29] They are themselves preyed on by large fish, birds, raccoons and adult alligators.[5] Mother alligators eventually become more aggressive towards their young, which encourages them to disperse.[29] Young alligators grow 3–8 in (7.6–20.3 cm) a year and reach adulthood at 6 ft (1.8 m).[11]

Interactions with exotic species

Nutria were introduced into coastal marshes from South America in the mid-1900s, and since then their population has exploded into the millions. They cause serious damage to coastal marshes and may dig burrows in levees. Hence, Louisiana has had a bounty to try to reduce nutria numbers. Large alligators, however, feed heavily on nutria, and thus alligators may not only control nutria populations in Louisiana, but prevent them spreading east into the Everglades. Since hunting and trapping preferentially take the large alligators that are the most important in eating nutria, some changes in harvesting may be needed to capitalize on the ability of alligators to control nutria.[15]

Recently, a population of non-native Burmese Pythons has become established in Everglades National Park. While there have been observed events of predation by Burmese pythons on alligators and vice versa, there is currently no evidence of a net negative effect on alligator populations.[30][31][32]

Drawing by the USFWS depicting an American alligator

Conservation status

Historically, hunting and habitat loss has decimated alligator populations throughout their range, and it was doubted as to whether the species would survive. In 1967, the alligator was listed as an endangered species (under a law that was the precursor Endangered Species Act of 1973), since it was believed to be in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.[33]

Both the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and state wildlife agencies in the South contributed to the American alligator's recovery. Protection under the Endangered Species Act allowed the species to recuperate in many areas where it had been depleted. States begin monitoring their alligator populations to ensure that they would continue to grow. In 1987, the Fish and Wildlife Service removed the animal from the endangered species list as it was considered to be fully recovered. The Fish and Wildlife Service still regulates the legal trade in alligators and their products to protect still endangered crocodilians that may be passed off as alligators during trafficking.[33]

Relationships with humans

Attacks on humans

Man wrestling alligator (illustration)
Main article: List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States by decade

Alligators are capable of killing humans, but are generally wary enough not to see them as a potential prey. Mistaken identity leading to an attack is always possible, especially in or near cloudy waters. Alligators are often less aggressive towards humans than large crocodile species, a few of which (mainly the Nile and Saltwater Crocodiles) may prey on humans with some regularity.[9][34] Alligator bites are serious injuries due to the reptile's sheer bite force and risk of infection. Even with medical treatment, an alligator bite may still result in a fatal infection.[35]

As human populations increase, and as they build houses in low lying areas, or hunt and fish near water, there are inevitably incidents where alligators threaten, or at least appear to threaten, human life. Humans tend to exaggerate causes of death that seem unusual. Hence, alligators receive undue attention relative to other far more common causes of death such as drowning or car accidents. Since 1948, there have been 275 documented attacks on humans in Florida (that is, about five incidents per year), of which at least 17 resulted in death.[36] There were only nine fatal attacks in the US throughout the 1970s, '80s, and '90s, but alligators killed 12 people between 2001 and 2007. In May 2006, alligators killed three Floridians in less than a week.[37]

Alligator wrestling

Since the late 1880's, Alligator wrestling has been a source of great entertainment for residents of the northern USA (and elsewhere) when visiting the hot subtropical climates of the Gulf Coast and southeast States. The first large-scale Alligator wrestling shows on the East Coast of the USA occurred in 1897 in St. Augustine, Florida. Tourist attractions often have taken advantage of the myths about alligators—as well as the reality of their danger. Created by the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes prior to the arrival of Europeans, this tourism tradition continues to the present day despite criticism from animal rights activists. If you watched gator boys then they are the people who started alligator wrestling shows in Mississippi.

However, as more ecologically minded citizens defend these large reptiles, many alligator attractions and ecological preserves promote environmental awareness. The St. Augustine, Florida Alligator Farm Zoological Park began in the late nineteenth century as a small exhibition of Florida reptiles and became a quintessential Florida attraction. Today it functions as a modern zoo serving the public and the scientific community with educational shows and exhibits, important research and worldwide conservation efforts.

Alligator farming

Main article: Alligator farm

Alligator farming is a big and growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m) range have sold for $300 each.[38] The market for alligator meat is growing and approximately 300,000 pounds (140,000 kg) of meat is produced annually.[39] According to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 calories (840 kJ) per 3 ounces (85 g) serving size, of which 27 calories (130 kJ) come from fat.[40]

Symbol

The American alligator is the official state reptile of three states: Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi. In addition, Gators has been the nickname of the University of Florida's sports teams since 1911. In that year, a printer made a spur-of-the-moment decision to print an alligator emblem on a shipment of the school's football pennants; the mascot stuck, perhaps because the team captain's nickname was Gator.[41]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Template:IUCN2008
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  3. ^ Brochu, Christopher A. (2003). "Phylogenetic approaches toward crocodylian history" (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 31: 357–97. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141308.
  4. ^ Brochu, Christopher A. (1999). "Phylogenetics, Taxonomy, and Historical Biogeography of Alligatoroidea". Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir. 6: 9–100. doi:10.2307/3889340. JSTOR 3889340.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h "Crocodilian Species—American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
  6. ^ "American Alligator: Species Profile". US National Parks Service. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
  7. ^ "Zoo keeps albino alligator in the dark". NBC News.com. May 11, 2007. Retrieved August 15, 2012.
  8. ^ a b c Crocodiles and Alligators edited by S Charles A. Ross & Stephen Garnett. Checkmark Books (1989), ISBN 978-0816021741.
  9. ^ a b c Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
  10. ^ "Gator factsheet" (PDF). Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
  11. ^ a b c "American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)". Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. Retrieved August 16, 2012.
  12. ^ "What's the difference between a crocodile and an alligator?". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved August 26, 2012.
  13. ^ Goodwin, Thomas M. (1979). "Seasonal activity ranges and habitat preferences of adult alligators in a north-central Florida lake". Journal of Hepatology. 13 (2): 157–64. JSTOR 1563922.
  14. ^ Campell, Mark R.; Mazzotti, Frank J. (2004). "Characterization of Natural and Artificial Alligator Holes" (PDF). Southeastern Naturalist. 3 (4): 583–94. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2004)003[0583:CONAAA]2.0.CO;2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b c Keddy, P.A., L. Gough, J.A. Nyman, T. McFalls, J. Carter and J. Siegrist (2009). Alligator hunters, pelt traders, and runaway consumption of Gulf coast marshes: A trophic cascade perspective on coastal wetland losses. pp. 115–133 in B.R. Silliman, E.D. Grosholz, and M.D. Bertness (eds.) Human Impacts on Salt Marshes. A Global Perspective. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA ISBN 0520258924 Google Books
  16. ^ Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK ISBN 0521783674.
  17. ^ a b c Guggisberg, C.A.W. (1972). Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. p. 195. ISBN 0-7153-5272-5.
  18. ^ Lance, Valentine A. (2003). "Alligator physiology and life history: the importance of temperature". Experimental Gerontology. 38 (7): 801–805. doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(03)00112-8. PMID 12855291.
  19. ^ Reilly, S. M.; Elias, J. A. (1998). "Locomotion in alligator mississippiensis: kinematic effects of speed and posture and their relevance to the sprawling-to-erect paradigm" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 201 (18): 2559–74. PMID 9716509.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Fish, F. E. (1984). "Kinematics of undulatory swimming in the American alligator" (PDF). Copeia. 1984 (4): 839–43. doi:10.2307/1445326.
  21. ^ Erickson, Gregory M.; Lappin, A. Kristopher; Vliet, Kent A. (2003). "The ontogeny of bite-force performance in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)" (PDF). Journal of Zoology. 260 (3): 317–327. doi:10.1017/S0952836903003819.
  22. ^ [1]
  23. ^ Farmer, C. G. (2010). "Unidirectional airflow in the lungs of alligators". Science. 327 (5963): 338–340. doi:10.1126/science.1180219. PMID 20075253. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Dinets, V.L. (2011). "On terrestrial hunting in crocodilians" (PDF). Herpetological Bulletin. 114: 15–18.
  25. ^ WEC203/UW230: Living with Alligators: A Florida Reality. Edis.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
  26. ^ Garrick, L.D. and Lang, J.W. (1977). "Social Displays of the American Alligator". American Zoologist. 17: 225–239.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Dinets, V.L. (2010). "Nocturnal behavior of the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) in the wild during the mating season". Herpetological Bulletin. 111: 4–11.
  28. ^ Joanen, T.; Ferguson, M. W. J. (1982). "Temperature of egg incubation determines sex in Alligator mississippiensis". Nature. 296 (5860): 850–53. doi:10.1038/296850a0. PMID 7070524.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ a b Hunt, R. H; Watanabe, M. E. (1982). "Observations on the maternal behavior of the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis". Journal of Herpetology. 16 (3): 235–39. JSTOR 1563716.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Gator-guzzling python comes to messy end. Associated Press (2005-10-05). Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  31. ^ Butler, Rhett A. (2005-10-05) Python explodes after swallowing 6-foot alligator in Florida Everglades. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  32. ^ United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (2008-02-20). USGS Maps Show Potential Non-Native Python Habitat Along Three U.S. Coasts. www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  33. ^ a b "American Alligator Alligator mississippiensis" (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. February, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ^ Crocodile and Alligator Differences – Animal Facts for Kids. Sciencekids.co.nz (2012-07-11). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
  35. ^ Harding, Brett E.; Wolf, Barbara C. (2006). "Alligator Attacks in Southwest Florida". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 51 (3): 674–677. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00135.x. PMID 16696720.
  36. ^ Living with Alligators, Myfwc.com.
  37. ^ "A String of Deaths by Gators in Florida". nytimes.com. 2006-05-15. Retrieved 2006-05-15.
  38. ^ Lane, Thomas J.; Ruppert, Kathleen C. (June 2008). "Alternative Opportunities for Small Farms:Alligator Production Review" (PDF). University of Florida. Retrieved August 29, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Reig Eimeric (2006). "Gator Maters: Florida farmers find lucrative business mating alligators". Orange and Blue Magazine. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
  40. ^ "Calories in Alligator, Crocodile". Annecollins.com. Archived from the original on 18 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-11. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ "History: 1906–1927, early Gainesville". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
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