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Signs and symptoms of pregnancy

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Signs and symptoms of pregnancy are common, benign conditions that result from the changes to the body that occur during pregnancy. Signs and symptoms of pregnancy typically change as pregnancy progresses, although several symptoms may be present throughout. Depending on severity, common symptoms in pregnancy can develop into complications. Pregnancy symptoms may be categorized based on trimester as well as region of the body affected.

Early pregnancy

Many of the early signs of pregnancy will be similar to symptoms that come right before a period, and it can be hard to tell the difference.[1][2]

Implantation bleeding

Implantation bleeding is light vaginal bleeding in the first 10–14 days of pregnancy caused by the normal implantation of the embryo in the uterine lining. Implantation bleeding may be confused with a regular period.[3][4] Heavy vaginal bleeding in the first trimester or bleeding associated with pain, may be a sign of a complication, such as a miscarriage or an ectopic pregnancy, that would need to be assessed by a healthcare provider.[5]

Breast tenderness

Hormonal changes in early pregnancy can cause breast swelling and tenderness. Breast tenderness typically improves as the body adjusts to the pregnancy.[4]

Fatigue

Fatigue in the first trimester is common due to changes in hormones.[6][7]

Nausea and vomiting (morning sickness)

Main article: Morning sickness

Nausea and vomiting, known as morning sickness, occurs in 80% of pregnant women.[8] Although described as "morning sickness," pregnant women can experience this nausea any time of day or night. The exact cause of morning sickness remains unknown. Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy is typically mild and self-limited, resolving on its own by the 14th week of pregnancy. Other causes should also be ruled out when considering treatment. Initial treatment is typically conservative, and may include changes to diet and emotional support. For women that do not improve with initial treatment, medications, such as pyridoxine and doxylamine, may also be used.[8] A rare form of severe nausea and vomiting known as hyperemesis gravidarum can occur in 1% of pregnant women and can affect fetal and maternal health.[9]

Mid and later pregnancy

Musculoskeletal pain and discomfort

  • Low back pain and pelvic girdle pain – Pregnancy-related low back pain (PLBP) and pregnancy-related pelvic girdle pain (PGP) are common conditions occurring in an estimated 45% of pregnant women and 25% of postpartum women.[10] Most of the literature does not distinguish between PLBP and PGP as since their precise definitions often overlap, however it is possible to differentiate them through history taking, clinical examination, provocative test maneuvers, and imaging.[11] Pregnancy-related low back pain and pelvic girdle pain can occur together or separately. The pain is often dull, intermittent, worse in the evening, and usually occurs within 30 minutes of activities like walking, standing, or sitting.[11] Both PLBP and PGP can negatively impact quality of life for those affected, and the severity of discomfort typically increases with advancing pregnancy.[12] During pregnancy, the enlarged abdomen and gravid uterus place additional strain on lumbar muscles and shift the pregnant woman's center of gravity. These postural compensations culminate in an increased load on both lumbar spinal musculature and the sacroiliac ligaments, manifesting as low back pain and/or pelvic girdle pain.[11] Hormonal changes throughout pregnancy also cause an increase in joint laxity further contributing to the development of PLBP and PGP. Predictors for the development of low-back and pelvic pain during pregnancy include strenuous work, prior lumbo-pelvic pain, and a history of pregnancy-related PGP and LBP. Additional risk factors are advanced maternal age, increased parity, and higher body mass index, and previous pelvic trauma. There is moderate-quality of evidence that interventions such as physical therapy management, osteomanipulative therapy, acupuncture or craniosacral therapy reduce low back pain during pregnancy.[12] Maternity support belts have not been shown to reduce low back pain in pregnancy.[13] Land or water based exercise may both prevent and treat lower back and pelvic pain, yet current research in this area is of low quality.[14]
  • Carpal tunnel syndrome – Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur in up to 70% of pregnant women and typically has a benign course.[15][16] It manifests as pain, numbness, and tingling in the thumb, index finger, middle finger and the thumb side of the ring finger.[17] The symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome during pregnancy are usually mild and do not require treatment. However, if necessary, wrist splinting at night is the initial treatment that is recommended.[16]
  • Leg cramps – Leg cramps (involuntary spasms of the calf muscles) can affect between 30% and 50% of pregnant women and most commonly occur in the last three months of pregnancy.[18] Leg cramps typically last only for a few seconds, however they can be extremely painful and last for minutes.[19] There is not clear evidence whether oral electrolyte and vitamin treatments (such as magnesium, calcium, vitamin B or vitamin C) are effective in treating leg cramps during pregnancy.[20]
  • Round Ligament pain – Round ligament pain commonly occurs in the second trimester and manifests as a sudden, sharp pain in the groin area or lower abdomen, on one or both sides. Typically the pain only lasts for a few seconds. During pregnancy, the growing uterus can put stress on the round ligament of the uterus, causing it to stretch and lead to pain. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the recommended pain reliever for pregnant women with round ligament pain.

Fluid imbalance and kidney function

  • Dehydration – Caused by expanded intravascular space and increased third spacing of fluids. Complications include uterine contractions, which may occur because dehydration causes body release of ADH, which is similar to oxytocin in structure. Oxytocin itself can cause uterine contractions and thus ADH can cross-react with oxytocin receptors and cause contractions.
  • Swelling/Edema – Swelling occurs when excess fluid accumulates in regions of the body, resulting in abnormal enlargement or "puffiness." This commonly occurs in the upper and lower extremities. Compression of the inferior vena cava (IVC)[21] and pelvic veins by the uterus leads to increased hydrostatic pressure in the vasculature of the lower extremities. This increase in pressure shunts fluid from within the vasculature to the extracellular space. Treatment includes raising legs above the heart, advising patient to sleep on her side to prevent the uterus from compressing the inferior vena cava, reflexology, water emersion[22] & compression stockings.
  • Increased urinary frequency – Caused by increased intravascular volume, elevated GFR (glomerular filtration rate), and compression of the bladder by the expanding uterus. It may appear rather suddenly by head engagement of the fetus into cephalic presentation. Doctors advise pregnant women to continue fluid intake despite this. Urinalysis and culture are ordered to rule out infection, which can also cause increased urinary frequency but typically is accompanied by dysuria (pain when urinating).[23]

Gastrointestinal (GI)

  • Heartburn – Heartburn (Regurgitation) is a burning pain in the chest, behind the breastbone that occurs when stomach acid travel up the esophagus and causes irritation. This sometimes happens in pregnancy due to relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), which normally keeps acidic stomach contents in the stomach. Additionally, heartburn is worsened when the growing fetus increases intra-abdominal pressure, thereby compressing the stomach and pushing stomach contents through the relaxed lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The acidic contents of the stomach irritate the lining of the esophagus, resulting in a burning sensation in the mid chest. Regurgitation and heartburn in pregnancy can be at least alleviated by eating multiple small meals a day, avoiding eating within three hours of going to bed, and sitting up straight when eating.[24][25] If diet and lifestyle changes are not enough, antacids and alginates may be required to control indigestion, particularly if the symptoms are mild.[25] Surgical repair may also be indicated.[26] If these, in turn, are not enough, proton pump inhibitors may be used.[25] If more severe, it may be diagnosed as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
  • Constipation – Constipation occurs in 11–38% of pregnant women.[27] Constipation during pregnancy is thought to be due to decreased smooth muscle motility in the bowel caused by normal increases in progesterone.[28] Treatment for constipation includes dietary modifications, including increased fiber and fluid intake, stool softeners, and laxatives.[27]
  • Hemorrhoids – Hemorrhoids are enlarged veins near or inside the rectum. Hemorrhoids are common in pregnancy as a result of constipation and increased intra-abdominal pressure. Hemorrhoids can cause bleeding, pain, and itching.[29] Treatment is symptomatic, including improving underlying constipation. Symptoms may resolve spontaneously after pregnancy, although hemorrhoids may remain in the days after childbirth.[30]

Skin and vasculature changes

  • Diastasis recti – During pregnancy, the growth of the fetus exerts pressure on the abdominal muscles. On occasion, women experience a separation of their rectus abdominis. The rectus abdominis is divided centrally (mid-line) by the fibrous linea alba.[31] In pregnancies that experience rapid fetus growth or in women with weak abdominal muscles, this pressure can cause the rectus abdominis muscle to separate along the linea alba, creating a split between the left and right sides of the rectus abdominis.[32] Diastasis recti is common, and occurs more frequently as pregnancy progresses, up to and including labor.[33] Elevated BMI, multiparity (twins, triplets, etc.), and diabetes have been identified as risk factors.[34] Many cases of diastasis recti correct themselves after birth. In cases that persist, exercise may help, but sometimes surgery is needed to improve symptoms and prevent chronic problems.[35][36]
  • Varicose veins -Dilation of veins in legs caused by relaxation of smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure due to fluid volume increase.[37] Treatment involves elevation of the legs and pressure stockings to relieve swelling along with warm sitz baths to decrease pain.[38] There is a small amount of evidence that rutosides (a herbal remedy) may relieve symptoms of varicose veins in late pregnancy but it is not yet known if rutosides are safe to take in pregnancy.[22] Risk factors include obesity, lengthy standing or sitting, constrictive clothing and constipation and bearing down with bowel movements.
  • Striae gravidarum (stretch marks) – pregnancy-related stretch marks occur in 50% to 90% of women,[39] and are caused both by the skin stretching and by the effects of hormonal changes on fibers in the skin.[40] They are more common in younger women, women of color, women having larger babies and women who are overweight or obese, and they sometimes run in families.[40] Stretch marks generally begin as red or purple stripes (striae rubra), fading to pale or flesh-color (striae alba) after pregnancy that will generally be permanent.[39][40][41] They appear most commonly on the abdomen, breasts, buttocks, thighs, and arms, and may cause itching and discomfort.[39][40] Although several kinds of multi-component creams are marketed and used, along with vitamin E cream, cocoa butter, almond oil and olive oil, none have been shown to prevent or reduce stretch marks in pregnancy.[39][40] The safety for use in pregnancy of one herbal ingredient used in some products, Centella asiatica, has been questioned.[40] Some treatments used to reduce scarring, such as topical tretinoin lasers,[41] are sometimes used on stretch marks, but evidence on them is limited.[40] Topical tretinoin has been shown to cause malformations in animals, without adequate human studies on safety in human pregnancies.[42]
  • Generalized itching – It is a quite common complaint in pregnancy to have generalized itching which is not due to any systemic disease or any skin lesion.[43] The itching is very frustrating and it may disturb sleep which leads to exhaustion and impaired quality of life. There is no clear satisfying treatment for this symptom. More research is needed to define a possible, effective, and safe management.[43]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Symptoms of pregnancy: What happens first". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  2. ^ "The 14 Earliest Pregnancy Symptoms to Look Out For". What to Expect. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  3. ^ "Is implantation bleeding normal in early pregnancy?". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
  4. ^ a b "Symptoms of pregnancy: What happens first". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  5. ^ "Bleeding During Pregnancy". www.acog.org. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  6. ^ "1st trimester pregnancy: What to expect". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  7. ^ Poole, C. J. (September 1986). "Fatigue during the first trimester of pregnancy". Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing. 15 (5): 375–379. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.1986.tb01409.x. ISSN 0884-2175. PMID 3639925.
  8. ^ a b Quinla, Jeffrey D.; Hill, D. Ashley (1 July 2003). "Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy". American Family Physician. 68 (1): 121–128. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 12887118.
  9. ^ Herrell, Howard Ernest (15 June 2014). "Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy". American Family Physician. 89 (12): 965–970. ISSN 1532-0650. PMID 25162163.
  10. ^ Vermani, Era; Mittal, Rajnish; Weeks, Andrew (2010). "Pelvic Girdle Pain and Low Back Pain in Pregnancy: A Review". Pain Practice. 10 (1): 60–71. doi:10.1111/j.1533-2500.2009.00327.x. ISSN 1533-2500. PMID 19863747. S2CID 1847620.
  11. ^ a b c Casagrande, Danielle; Gugala, Zbigniew; Clark, Shannon M.; Lindsey, Ronald W. (September 2015). "Low Back Pain and Pelvic Girdle Pain in Pregnancy". JAAOS – Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 23 (9): 539–549. doi:10.5435/JAAOS-D-14-00248. ISSN 1067-151X. PMID 26271756. S2CID 20678117.
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  13. ^ Ho, SS; Yu, WW; Lao, TT; Chow, DH; Chung, JW; Li, Y (June 2009). "Effectiveness of maternity support belts in reducing low back pain during pregnancy: a review". Journal of Clinical Nursing. 18 (11): 1523–32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02749.x. PMID 19490291.
  14. ^ Liddle, SD; Pennick, V (30 September 2015). "Interventions for preventing and treating low-back and pelvic pain during pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (9): CD001139. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001139.pub4. PMC 7053516. PMID 26422811.
  15. ^ Mondelli M, Rossi S, Monti E, et al. (September 2007). "Long term follow-up of carpal tunnel syndrome during pregnancy: a cohort study and review of the literature". Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 47 (6): 259–71. PMID 17918501.
  16. ^ a b Mondelli, M.; Rossi, S.; Monti, E.; Aprile, I.; Caliandro, P.; Pazzaglia, C.; Romano, C.; Padua, L. (September 2007). "Long term follow-up of carpal tunnel syndrome during pregnancy: a cohort study and review of the literature". Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 47 (6): 259–271. ISSN 0301-150X. PMID 17918501.
  17. ^ Burton, Claire; Chesterton, Linda S; Davenport, Graham (26 April 2014). "Diagnosing and managing carpal tunnel syndrome in primary care". British Journal of General Practice. 64 (622): 262–263. doi:10.3399/bjgp14x679903. ISSN 0960-1643. PMC 4001168. PMID 24771836.
  18. ^ Sohrabvand, F; Shariat, M; Haghollahi, F (October 2006). "Vitamin B supplementation for leg cramps during pregnancy". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 95 (1): 48–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2006.05.034. PMID 16919630. S2CID 44638877.
  19. ^ Allen, RE; Kirby, KA (15 August 2012). "Nocturnal leg cramps". American Family Physician. 86 (4): 350–5. PMID 22963024.
  20. ^ Luo L, Zhou K, Zhang J, Xu L, Yin W (4 December 2020). "Interventions for leg cramps in pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (12): CD010655. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010655.pub3. PMC 8094374. PMID 33275278.
  21. ^ Lawrensia S, Khan YS (July 2020). "Inferior Vena Cava Syndrome". StatPearls. PMID 32809720. Retrieved 10 May 2020. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ^ a b Smyth, RM; Aflaifel, N; Bamigboye, AA (19 October 2015). "Interventions for varicose veins and leg oedema in pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (10): CD001066. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001066.pub3. PMC 7050615. PMID 26477632.
  23. ^ Australia, Healthdirect (7 June 2023). "Frequent urination during pregnancy". www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  24. ^ National Guideline Alliance (UK) (2021). Management of heartburn in pregnancy: Antenatal care: Evidence review S. NICE Evidence Reviews Collection. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). ISBN 978-1-4731-4227-5. PMID 34524761.
  25. ^ a b c Treatments for indigestion and heartburn in pregnancy from National Health Service in the United Kingdom. Page last reviewed: 19/11/2012
  26. ^ Olsson, Anders; Kiwanuka, Olivia; Wilhelmsson, Sofia; Sandblom, Gabriel; Stackelberg, Otto (6 September 2021). "Surgical repair of diastasis recti abdominis provides long-term improvement of abdominal core function and quality of life: a 3-year follow-up". BJS Open. 5 (5). doi:10.1093/bjsopen/zrab085. ISSN 2474-9842. PMC 8438255. PMID 34518875.
  27. ^ a b Vazquez, Juan C (20 February 2008). "Constipation, haemorrhoids, and heartburn in pregnancy". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2008. ISSN 1752-8526. PMC 2907947. PMID 19450328.
  28. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health (UK) (March 2008). Antenatal care: routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. RCOG Press. ISBN 9781904752462. Retrieved 14 November 2013. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  29. ^ Staroselsky, Arthur; Nava-Ocampo, Alejandro A.; Vohra, Sabina; Koren, Gideon (February 2008). "Hemorrhoids in pregnancy". Canadian Family Physician. 54 (2): 189–190. ISSN 0008-350X. PMC 2278306. PMID 18272631.
  30. ^ Vazquez, JC (3 August 2010). "Constipation, haemorrhoids, and heartburn in pregnancy". Clinical Evidence. 2010. PMC 3217736. PMID 21418682.
  31. ^ Saladin, Kenneth S. (2012). Anatomy & Physiology: the Unity of Form and Function (6th ed.). New York NY: McGraw-Hill.
  32. ^ "Separated Muscles". Pregnancy Info: Birth, Baby, and Maternity Advice. 2011.
  33. ^ Rohmann, Riana (11 August 2011). "Exercises To Correct Abdominal Separation After Pregnancy". LIVESTRONG.COM.
  34. ^ Cavalli, M.; Aiolfi, A.; Bruni, P. G.; Manfredini, L.; Lombardo, F.; Bonfanti, M. T.; Bona, D.; Campanelli, G. (August 2021). "Prevalence and risk factors for diastasis recti abdominis: a review and proposal of a new anatomical variation". Hernia: The Journal of Hernias and Abdominal Wall Surgery. 25 (4): 883–890. doi:10.1007/s10029-021-02468-8. ISSN 1248-9204. PMC 8370915. PMID 34363190.
  35. ^ "Diastasis Recti". The New York Times; Health Guide. 17 June 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
  36. ^ Pictures from: Mayo Clinic and GymCompany
  37. ^ "Varicose Veins". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 8 August 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  38. ^ "Treatments". stanfordhealthcare.org. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  39. ^ a b c d Brennan, M; Young, G; Devane, D (14 November 2012). "Topical preparations for preventing stretch marks in pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012 (11): CD000066. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000066.pub2. PMC 10001689. PMID 23152199.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g Tunzi, M; Gray, GR (15 January 2007). "Common skin conditions during pregnancy". American Family Physician. 75 (2): 211–18. PMID 17263216.
  41. ^ a b Alexiades-Armenakas, MR; Bernstein, LJ; Friedman, PM; Geronemus, RG (August 2004). "The safety and efficacy of the 308-nm excimer laser for pigment correction of hypopigmented scars and striae alba". Archives of Dermatology. 140 (8): 955–60. doi:10.1001/archderm.140.8.955. PMID 15313811.
  42. ^ "Renova (tretinoin) cream". DailyMed. FDA and National Library of Medicine.
  43. ^ a b Rungsiprakarn, P; Laopaiboon, M; Sangkomkamhang, US; Lumbiganon, P (19 February 2016). "Pharmacological interventions for generalised itching (not caused by systemic disease or skin lesions) in pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (2): CD011351. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011351.pub2. PMC 8665832. PMID 26891962.
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