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Mixed-race Dominicans

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Mixed Dominican people
Mixed-race Dominicans, students with historic 1844 flag.
Total population
7.8 million or 73.9% of population (2022)
Languages
Dominican Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholicism, Protestantism
Related ethnic groups
Other Dominicans

Mixed Dominicans, also referred to as mulatto, mestizo or historically quadroon, are Dominicans who are of mixed racial ancestry. Representing 73.9% of the Dominican Republic's population, they are by far the single largest racial grouping of the country.[1]

Mixed Dominicans are the descendants from the racial integration between the Europeans, Native Americans, and later the Africans. They have a total population of approximately 8 million.[2][3]

The Dominican Republic was the site of the first European settlement in the Americas, the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo founded in 1493. After the arrival of Europeans and the founding of the colony, African people were imported to the island. The fusion of European, native Taino, and African influences contributed to the development of present-day Dominican culture.

History

Native peoples

Main article: Chiefdoms of Hispaniola

Prior to European colonization the inhabitants of the island were the Arawakan-speaking Taíno, a seafaring people who moved into Hispaniola from the north-east region of South America, displacing earlier inhabitants,[4] c. AD 650. The native Tainos divided the island into several chiefdoms and engaged in farming, fishing,[5] as well as hunting, and gathering.[4]

The Spaniards arrived in 1492. Columbus and his crew were the first Europeans to encounter the Taíno people. Columbus described the native Taínos as a physically tall, and well-proportioned people, with a noble character. After initially amicable relationships, the Taínos fought against the conquest, led by the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband Chief Caonabo of Maguana, as well as Chiefs Guacanagaríx, Guamá, Hatuey, and Enriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave for a time on the island. Within a few years after 1492 the population of Taínos had declined drastically, due to warfare and intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that at least 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taino women,[6] and many present-day Dominicans have significant Taíno ancestry.[7][8]

European colonization

Christopher Columbus arrived on the island in December 5, 1492, during the first of his four voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named it La Española due to its diverse climate and terrain which reminded him of the Spanish landscape. In 1496, Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Santo Domingo in the southern coast of the island. The colony became a military base of Spanish conquistadors for the further Spanish conquest of the Americas and the first seat of Spanish colonial rule in the New World. For centuries the colony fought against British, Dutch, and French expeditions into the region until the 17th century when pirates working for the French Empire took over part of the west coast. After decades of armed conflicts, Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France in the Treaty of Ryswick.

Dominican Republic national pantheon in Santo Domingo.

In the 1700s Santo Domingo's exports soared and the island's agricultural productivity rose.[9] The population was bolstered by European emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony in the Cibao Valley.[10][11] During this period, the privateers of Santo Domingo sailed into enemy ports looking for ships to attack, thus disrupting commerce between Spain's enemies in the Atlantic. Dominicans in the service of the Spanish Crown captured British, Dutch, French and Danish ships in the Caribbean Sea throughout the 18th century.[12] The revenue acquired in these acts of piracy was invested in the economic expansion of the colony. Numerous captive Africans were also taken from enemy slave ships in West Indian waters. The population of Santo Domingo grew to approximately 125,000 in the year 1791. Of this number, 40,000 were white landowners, about 70,000 were of multiracial origin, and some 15,000 were black slaves.[13][14][15] [16][17]

From the start of the colonial period in the 1500s, Miscegenation (Mestizaje), intermixing of races particularly Spanish settlers, native Tainos, and imported Africans (free or enslaved), was very strong.[18] In fact, colonial Santo Domingo had higher amount of mixing and lesser racial tensions in comparison to other colonies, even other Spanish colonies, this was due to the fact that for most of its colonial period, Santo Domingo was used as a military base where the majority of the white Spanish settlers had an economy based on Cattle ranching, which was a far less labor-intensive than the more common plantation slavery at the time.[19][20] By the 1700s, the majority of the population was mixed race, forming the basis of the Dominican ethnicity as a distinct people well before independence was achieved.[21]

Independence

Juan Pablo Duarte, founding father of the Dominican Republic.
Map of the Dominican Republic and Haiti in 1859.

During the 1800s Dominicans were often at war, fighting the French, Haitians, Spanish, or amongst themselves, resulting in a society heavily influenced by military strongmen. Santo Domingo attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844. Dominican nationalists led an insurrection against the Haitians. On the morning of 27 February 1844, the gates of Santo Domingo rang with the shots of the plotters, who had emerged from their meetings to openly challenge the Haitians. Their efforts were successful, and for the next ten years, Dominican military strongmen fought to preserve their country's independence from the Haitian government. After ousting the Haitian occupying force from the country, Dominican nationalists fought against a series of attempted Haitian invasions that served to consolidate their independence from 1844 to 1856.[22] Under the command of Faustin Soulouque Haitian soldiers tried to gain back control of lost territory, but this effort was to no avail as the Dominicans would go on to decisively win every battle henceforth. In March 1844, a 30,000-strong two-pronged attack by Haitians was successfully repelled by an under-equipped Dominican army under the command of the wealthy rancher Gen. Pedro Santana.[23] Four years later, Dominican fleets attacked Haitian towns, and land reinforcements in the south to force the determined Haitian leader to concede.[23] In the most thorough and intense encounter of all, Dominicans armed with swords sent Haitian troops into flight on all three fronts in 1855.[23]

Post-colonial migrations

In the twentieth century, many immigrants came from other Caribbean islands, including the Bahamas, Turks, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the coastal areas of the country. The immigration of Cocolos began in the late 1800s with the rise and development of the sugar industry in the Dominican Republic. The first Turks and Caicos Islander immigrants began arriving in Puerto Plata after the Dominican War of Restoration, long before the modern sugar industry was established. When the railroad of Puerto Plata-Santiago was built in the late 19th century, many came from these islands to work on the railroad as well as others from Saint Thomas, which was then a Danish colony, they also settled in large numbers in Puerto Plata.[24]

More recently, a large source of immigrants is Haiti, and to a lesser degree Venezuela, Cuba, Puerto Rico, among others. Arabs (primarily from Lebanon and Syria) also settled in the country, working as agricultural laborers and merchants. Most immigrants intermixed with the local Dominican population, especially immigrants that came before 1980.

Genetic ancestry and DNA testing

Timeline of the Dominican Republic's genetic make-up since 500 years ago showing the impact of migrations. The founder Dominican population was mostly White European in origin with some Native Taíno element, but was modified by 3 subsequent African inflows. During most of the colonial period, the share of each ancestry group was as follows: 73% European, 10% Native, 17% African. After the Haitian incursions and Afro-Caribbean migrations the ratio changed to: 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African.
  European DNA
  Native American DNA
  Sub-Saharan African DNA

According to recent genealogical DNA studies of the Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantly European and Sub-Saharan African, with a lesser degree of Native American ancestry.[25] The average Dominican DNA of the founder population is estimated to be 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African. After the Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrations the overall percentage changed to 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African.[26] Due to mixed race Dominicans (and most Dominicans in general) being a mix of mainly European and African, with lesser amounts of indigenous Taino, they can accurately be described as "Mulatto" or "Tri-racial".[27][28] Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix,[29] Indio describes mixed race people whose skin color is between white and black.[30]

The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all mixed race individuals having Taíno Native American ancestry along with European and African ancestry. European ancestry in the mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 40%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 5% and 10%. European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-central Cibao region, and generally in the mountainous interior of the country. African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and the border regions.[25]

In Dominican Republic and some other Latin American countries, it can sometimes be difficult to determine the exact number of racial groups, because the lines between whites and lighter multiracials are very blurry, which is also true between blacks and darker multiracials. As race in Dominican Republic acts as a continuum of white—mulatto—black and not as clear cut as in places like the United States.[31] And many times in the same family, there can be people of different colors and racial phenotypes who are blood related, this is due to the large amounts of interracial mixing for hundreds of years in Dominican Republic and the Spanish Caribbean in general, allowing for high amounts of genetic diversity.[32]

Dominican Republic people in the town of Moca.
Genetic ancestry of Dominican population[33][25]
6 Test European SSA Amerindian
23andMe 60% 30% 5%
PLOS 57% 38% 5%
TracingAfricanRoots 54% 37% 7%
AncestryDNA 52% 39% 8%

Culture

Carnival celebrations are held in the Dominican Republic each February with parades, street dancing, food festivals, and music. Festivities also take place in the week leading up to Easter Sunday. Parades, beauty pageants, and different festivals in each town throughout the country fill the week. In June the country celebrates Espíritu Santo to honor the island's multi-ethnic heritage with nationwide festivals featuring traditional music.

Dominican Republic students with historical national flag.

Concerts, dance troupes, arts and crafts booths, and chefs also celebrate Dominican heritage with an annual cultural festival in Puerto Plata each June. Fiesta Patria de la Restauración, or Restoration Day, celebrates the Dominican Republic's day of independence from Spain, which occurred in 1863. Nationwide events include parades, music festivals, street festivals, and food festivals.

Music

Main articles: Music of the Dominican Republic and List of Dominican singers

Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the creation of multiple musical styles and genres but is mostly recognized for merengue, a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music based on a mixture of European and African musical elements of drums, brass, piano, chorded instruments, and traditionally the accordion, as well as some elements unique to the Dominican Republic, such as the tambora and güira. Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, and piano or keyboard. Between 1937 and 1950 merengue music was promoted internationally by Dominican groups.[citation needed]

Dominican traditional music and dance culture.

Bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years. Bachata is mainly derived from Spanish guitar music, with some African and Native influences. It is closely related to the pan-Latin American romantic style called bolero. Over time, it has also been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles.[citation needed]

Traditional attire

The typical or national dress for the Dominican women tends to be a blouse, with ruffles on the sleeves, and a long skirt. Other times it tends to be a full body dress, but keeping the long wide skirt and the same of type of blouse. They adorn their hair with flowers, generally red caienne. The predominant color is white, contrasting with the red and blue colors. Dominican men often wear a white long sleeved shirt with details around the buttons and pants that are white or light grey, which can be long or mid-calf, and a hat. Sometimes they usually carry machetes or other bladed weapons. This suit has a strong Hispanic colonial influence.

Sports

Main article: Sports in the Dominican Republic
Dominican Major League Baseball player Albert Pujols.

Baseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic. After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second-highest number of Major League Baseball (MLB) players. Ozzie Virgil, Sr. became the first Dominican-born player in the MLB on September 23, 1956. Juan Marichal is the first Dominican-born player in the Baseball Hall of Fame.[34]

The highest paid baseball players of all time Alex Rodriguez, Albert Pujols, and Juan Soto are of Dominican descent. In 2013, the Dominican team went undefeated en route to winning the World Baseball Classic.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ Breve Encuesta Nacional de Autopercepción Racial y Étnica en la República Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Oficina Nacional de Estadística de la República Dominicana. 2022.
  2. ^ Esteva Fabregat, Claudio «La hispanización del mestizaje cultural en América» Revista Complutense de Historia de América, Universidad Complutense de Madrid. p. 133 (1981)
  3. ^ "U.S. Department of State People Profiles Latin American Countries". Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
  4. ^ a b Luna Calderón, Fernando (December 2002). "ADN Mitocondrial Taíno en la República Dominicana" [Taíno Mitochondrial DNA in the Dominican Republic] (PDF). Kacike (in Spanish) (Special). ISSN 1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2008.
  5. ^ "Dominican Republic". Encarta. Microsoft Corporation. Archived from the original on November 14, 2007. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
  6. ^ Ferbel Azcarate, Pedro J. (December 2002). "Not Everyone Who Speaks Spanish is from Spain: Taíno Survival in the 21st Century Dominican Republic" (PDF). KACIKE: The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology (Special). ISSN 1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2004. Retrieved September 24, 2009.
  7. ^ Guitar, Lynne (December 2012). "Documenting the Myth of Taíno Extinction" (PDF). Kacike (Special). ISSN 1562-5028. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  8. ^ Martínez Cruzado, Juan Carlos (December 2002). "The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic" (PDF). Kacike (Special). ISSN 1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  9. ^ Hazard, Samuel (1873). Santo Domingo, Past And Present; With A Glance At Haytl. p. 100.
  10. ^ "Corsairs of Santo Domingo a socio-economic study, 1718–1779" (PDF).
  11. ^ Figueredo, D. H. (2007). Latino Chronology: Chronologies of the American Mosaic. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780313341540.
  12. ^ "Corsairs of Santo Domingo a socio-economic study, 1718–1779" (PDF).
  13. ^ Valverde, Antonio Sánchez (1862). idea del valor de la isla española.
  14. ^ Peasants and Religion: A Socioeconomic Study of Dios Olivorio and the Palma Sola Religion in the Dominican Republic. p. 565.
  15. ^ "Dominican Republic—The First Colony". U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  16. ^ P. J. Ferbel (2002). "La sobrevivencia de la cultura Taína en la República Dominicana" [Survival of the Taino culture in the Dominican Republic] (in Spanish). suncaribbean.net. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  17. ^ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Dominican Republic". Minority Rights Group International – MRGI. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  18. ^ [1]
  19. ^ [2]
  20. ^ [3]
  21. ^ [4]
  22. ^ Moya, Pons Frank. 1977. Historia Colonial de Santo Domingo. 3rd ed. Santiago: Universidad Catolica Madre y Maestra.
  23. ^ a b c Knight 2014, p. 198.
  24. ^ Garvey, Marcus; Association, Universal Negro Improvement (2011-07-15). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822346906.
  25. ^ a b c Montinaro, Francesco; et al. (24 March 2015). "Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations". Nature Communications. 6. See Supplementary Data. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6596M. doi:10.1038/ncomms7596. PMC 4374169. PMID 25803618.
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  27. ^ [6]
  28. ^ [7]
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  33. ^ Moreno-Estrada, Andrés; Gravel, Simon; Zakharia, Fouad; McCauley, Jacob L.; Byrnes, Jake K.; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Ortiz-Tello, Patricia A.; Martínez, Ricardo J.; Hedges, Dale J.; Morris, Richard W.; Eng, Celeste; Sandoval, Karla; Acevedo-Acevedo, Suehelay; Norman, Paul J.; Layrisse, Zulay; Parham, Peter; Martínez-Cruzado, Juan Carlos; Burchard, Esteban González; Cuccaro, Michael L.; Martin, Eden R.; Bustamante, Carlos D. (2013). "Reconstructing the Population Genetic History of the Caribbean". PLOS Genetics. 9 (11): e1003925. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003925. PMC 3828151. PMID 24244192.
  34. ^ "Marichal, Juan". Baseball Hall of Fame. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
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