Alpha (ethology)

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For other uses, see Alpha Wolf (disambiguation).

Male "silverback" gorillas are usually the alpha animal and may receive preferential treatment such as being groomed by other group members

In studies of social animals, the highest ranking individual of a dominance hierarchy is sometimes designated as the alpha. Males, females, or both, can be alphas, depending on the species. Where one male and one female fulfill this role together, they are sometimes referred to as the alpha pair. Other animals in the same social group may exhibit deference or other species-specific subordinate behavior towards the alpha or alphas.

Alpha animals usually gain preferential access to food and other desirable items or activities, though the extent of this varies widely between species. Male or female alphas may gain preferential access to sex or mates; in some species, only alphas or an alpha pair reproduce.

Alphas may achieve their status by superior physical strength and aggression, or through social efforts and building alliances within the group,[1] or more often, simply by breeding and being the parent of all in their pack.[2] The individual with alpha status sometimes changes, often through a fight between the dominant and a subordinate animal. These fights are often to the death, depending on the animal.[3]

Beta and omega[edit]

"Beta male" redirects here. For the slang term, see Beta male (slang).

Social animals in a hierarchical community are sometimes assigned ranks in ethology studies.

  • Beta animals are collaborators, often act as second-in-command to the reigning alpha or alphas and will act as new alpha animals if an alpha dies or is otherwise no longer considered an alpha. In some species of birds, males pair up in twos when courting, the beta male aiding the alpha male. It has been found that the social context of the animals has a significant impact on courtship behavior and the overall reproductive success of that animal.[4]
  • Omega has a conflicted meaning ranging from "runt" to "lone wolf". As an antonym it is used to refer to the lowest caste of a hierarchical society. Following the theories that omega animals are subordinate to all others in the community, and are expected by others in the group to remain submissive to everyone. Omega animals may also be used as communal scapegoats or outlets for frustration, or given the lowest priority when distributing food.[5] These same researchers also compared the omega wolf to a "court jester," being first to initiate play, and while submissive, well liked and not outcast. Interestingly, in the pack under study, the omega named Lakota was in fact the largest and strongest of the wolves.[6]
Alternately, and in popular use, is the omega as the romanticized "Lone Wolf" or the omega wolf as discussed by David Mech.[7] Per this pro-omega type, the omega is not the submissive "second place" as a beta is. Rather, they are equally dominant yet in an independent way. Instead of leading a group like an alpha or collaborating like a beta, this omega type is self-reliant, and less collaborative – but also less focused on leading or commanding groups.

Examples[edit]

Primates[edit]

Researcher M.W. Foster investigated primates and found that the leaders were more likely to be those who did more for those around them instead of being determined by strength.[8]

Baboons[edit]

Alpha male baboons monopolize resources and mating access to females, and they are also more likely to suffer from stress.[9] Lower status males must expend more time and energy for mating opportunities. Alpha males may sometimes allow subordinate males to have access to mating, so the subordinate males can serve as "spare dads" and protect their offspring from other alpha males.[10]

Capuchin monkeys[edit]

A study on the association of alpha males and females during the non-breeding season in wild Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus) examined whether alpha males are the preferred mate for females and, secondly, whether female-alpha status and relationship to the alpha-male can be explained through the individual characteristics and or social network of the female.[11] The results indicated that alpha male Capuchin are the preferred mate for adult females. However, only the alpha females had strong interactions with the alpha males by virtue of a dominance hierarchy among the females in which only the most dominant and strong females were able to interact with the alpha male.[11]

Chimpanzees[edit]

Common chimpanzees use strength, intelligence, and political alliances to establish and maintain alpha position.[12] There have been rare cases where a group has killed the alpha male.[13][14] Common chimpanzees show deference to the alpha of the community by ritualized postures and gestures such as presenting their back, crouching, bowing, or bobbing.[15][verification needed] Chimpanzees lower in rank than the alpha male will offer their hand while grunting to the alpha male as a sign of submission.[16] Bonobo society on the other hand is governed by alpha females. Males will associate with females for rank acquisition because females dominate the social environment. If a male is to achieve alpha status in a bonobo group, he must be accepted by the alpha female.[17] Female bonobos use homosexual sex to increase social status. High-ranking females rarely interact sexually with other females, but low-ranking females interact sexually with all females.[18]

Gorillas[edit]

Gorillas use intimidation to establish and maintain alpha position. A study conducted regarding the reproductive behavior of male mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) found further evidence that dominant males are favored to father offspring, even when there is a greater number of males in a notably enlarged group size. The study also concluded that mating access dropped off less steeply with status; alpha, beta, and gamma showing more similar mating success, compared to what had been previously thought.[19]

Humans[edit]

In humans, the term "alpha male" is used both colloquially and academically to describe men who display expressions of dominance. [20][21][22][23]

Although human societies are more complex than the basic alpha-beta dichotomy used for non-human animals, [24] cross-cultural evidence from sociobiology, anthropology, and psychology shows that women generally prefer to mate with men who are of a superior or dominant ranking in the social status hierarchy (a concept known as hypergamy).[25] Results from a DNA analysis suggest that during the early era of human agriculture, only 1 man reproduced for every 17 women, which indicates that a small and socioeconomically powerful caste of men monopolized mating access to women (similar to alpha males of other species such as baboons and elephant seals).[26]

Men who are tall or have deep voices are perceived to be more intimidating, and they are also more desirable to women. [27] Tall and deep-voiced men are more likely to find success in politics and the workplace, and they are also more likely to reach top leadership positions (more so than tall women). [28][29]

Physical prowess also enhances the perceived dominance of men, and thus their mating prospects. Men who possess muscularity are more attractive to women, as larger muscles are an indicator of dominance.[30] Cross-cultural evidence indicates that a man's fighting ability heavily determines his ability to control resources in most cultures.[31] In a study where women were asked to view mixed martial arts fights, the male winners of the fights were seen as more attractive than the male losers. [32] Men with dancing ability are also seen as more attractive, perhaps because it is an expression of their physical prowess.[33]

According to psychologist Leon F. Seltzer, violent offenders such as serial killers are "alpha males" who would have served as good providers and protectors in the evolutionary past. [34] Women are more likely to have hybristophilia, a sexual paraphilia in which an individual is sexually aroused by another individual who has committed a moral outrage such as murder or rape.[35] Serial killers such as Charles Manson and Jeffrey Dahmer, terrorists such as Anders Behring Breivik and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, and mass shooters such as Nikolas Cruz and James Holmes have received many gifts, love letters, and sexual photographs from women while in prison.[36][37][38][39][40] Increased sexual access to women may be a significant motivator for young men to join street gangs. Anthropologists Craig T. Palmer and Christopher Tilley found that male gang members had a significantly higher average number of consensual female sex partners compared to males who were not members of gangs, with male leaders of gangs having the most female sex partners.[41]

Mandrills[edit]

Adult male mandrills with alpha status display vivid colouration on their skin, while those with beta status are more dull in colour. Both types of males engage in mating, but only the dominant alpha males have the ability to produce offspring. Male mandrills sometimes fight for breeding rights which results in dominance. Though conflicts are rare, they can be deadly. Gaining dominance, that is becoming the alpha male, results in an "increased testicular volume, reddening of sexual skin on the face and genitalia, and heightened secretion of the sternal cutaneous gland".[42] When a male loses dominance or its alpha status, the reverse happens, although the blue ridges remain brightened. There is also a fall in its reproductive success. This effect is gradual and takes place over a few years.[43][44][45] When beta males mate-guard a female, the competition between them allows the alpha males to have a greater chance of producing offspring,[46] since betas outnumber alphas 21 to 1.

Carnivora[edit]

Elephant seals[edit]

Dominant male elephant seals arrive at potential breeding sites in spring, and fast to ensure that they can mate with as many females as possible.[47] Male elephant seals use fighting, vocal noises, and different positions to determine who will be deemed the dominant male.[47][48] When males reach eight to nine years of age, they have developed a pronounced long nose, in addition to a chest shield, which is thickened skin in their chest area.[47] They display their dominance by showing their noses, making loud vocalisations, and altering their postures.[47][48] They fight each other by raising themselves and ramming each other with their chests and teeth.[47]

When females arrive, the dominating males have already selected their territory on the beach.[47] Females cluster in groups called harems, which could consist of up to 50 females surrounding one alpha male.[47] Outside of these groups, a beta bull is normally roaming around on the beach.[47] The beta bull helps the alpha by preventing other males accessing the females.[47] In return, the beta bull might have an opportunity to mate with one of the females while the alpha is occupied.[47]

Canines[edit]

In the past, the prevailing view on gray wolf packs was that they consisted of individuals vying with each other for dominance, with dominant gray wolves being referred to as the "alpha" male and female, and the subordinates as "beta" and "omega" wolves. This terminology was first used in 1947 by Rudolf Schenkel of the University of Basel, who based his findings on researching the behavior of captive gray wolves.[49] This view on gray wolf pack dynamics was later popularized by the researcher L. David Mech in his 1970 book The Wolf. He later found additional evidence that the concept of an Alpha male may have been an interpretation of incomplete data and formally disavowed this terminology in 1999. He explained that it was heavily based on the behavior of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, an error reflecting the once prevailing view that wild pack formation occurred in winter among independent gray wolves. Later research on wild gray wolves revealed that the pack is usually a family consisting of a breeding pair and their offspring of the previous 1–3 years. In the article, Mech wrote that the use of the term "alpha" to describe the breeding pair adds no additional information, and is "no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha." He further notes the terminology falsely implies a "force-based dominance hierarchy." In 13 years of summer observations of wild wolves, he witnessed no dominance contests between them.[50]

In some other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female.[51] Other pack members as in the African painted dog (Lycaon pictus) may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female.[52]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ de Waal, Frans (2007) [1982]. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes (25th Anniversary ed.). Baltimore, MD: JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8656-0.
  2. ^ Letzter, Rafi (12 October 2016). "There's no such thing as an alpha male". Business Insider. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  3. ^ "Dominance hierarchy | animal behavior".
  4. ^ Wilson, David R.; Nelson, Ximena J.; Evans, Christopher S. (October 2009). "Seizing the Opportunity: Subordinate Male Fowl Respond Rapidly to Variation in Social Context" (PDF). Ethology. 115 (10): 996–1004. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2009.01688.x.
  5. ^ Dutcher, Jim; Dutcher, Jamie (2019). Running with Wolves. National Geographic Books. pp. 115–119. ISBN 9781426333583.
  6. ^ "The Omega Wolf". LivingWithWolves.org. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
  7. ^ https://www.dictionary.com/e/slang/omega-wolf/#origin
  8. ^ Foster, M.W. (2009). "Alpha male chimpanzee grooming patterns: implications for dominance "style"". American Journal of Primatology. 2009 (2): 136–144. doi:10.1002/ajp.20632. PMID 19025996. S2CID 8536293.
  9. ^ https://www.wired.com/2011/07/baboon-stress/
  10. ^ https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn18366-why-alpha-male-baboons-allow-subordinates-sex-treats/
  11. ^ a b Tiddi, Barbara (2011). "Social relationships between adult females and the alpha male in wild tufted Capuchin monkeys". American Journal of Primatology. 73 (8): 812–20. doi:10.1002/ajp.20939. PMID 21698660. S2CID 205329683.
  12. ^ Foster, M; Gilby, I; Murray, C; Johnson, A; Wroblewski, E; Pusey, A (2009). "Alpha Male Chimpanzee Grooming Patterns: Implications for Dominance Style" (PDF). American Journal of Primatology. 71 (2): 136–144. doi:10.1002/ajp.20632. PMID 19025996. S2CID 8536293.
  13. ^ Greshko, Michael (30 January 2017). "In Rare Killing, Chimpanzees Cannibalize Former Leader". National Geographic.
  14. ^ Whyte, Chelsea (30 January 2017). "Chimps beat up, murder and then cannibalize their former tyrant". New Scientist.
  15. ^ "ChimpanZoo Homepage". Chimpanzoo.org. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  16. ^ Noonan, Michael. "Inside a Chimpanzee Community". Canisius Ambassadors for Conservation.
  17. ^ Cawthon Lang, Kristina (1 December 2010). "Primate Factsheets: Bonobo". Primate Info Net.
  18. ^ Edwards, Lin (2 March 2012). "Female bonobos use homosexual sex to increase social status". Phys.org.
  19. ^ Stoinski, T.S.; Rosenbaum, T.; Ngaboyamahina, T.; Vecellio, V.; Ndagijimana, F.; Fawcett, K. (2009). "Patterns of male reproductive behaviour in multi-male groups of mountain gorillas: examining theories of reproductive skew". Behaviour. 146 (9): 1193–1215. doi:10.1163/156853909x419992.
  20. ^ https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/head-games/201412/are-alpha-males-myth-or-reality?quicktabs_5=0
  21. ^ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13032917.2017.1370778
  22. ^ https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1060826518801531
  23. ^ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09589236.2014.990425
  24. ^ https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/head-games/201412/are-alpha-males-myth-or-reality?quicktabs_5=0
  25. ^ Cashdan, Elizabeth (1996). "Women's Mating Strategies" (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 5 (4): 134–143. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1996)5:4<134::AID-EVAN3>3.0.CO;2-G. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2013.
  26. ^ https://psmag.com/environment/17-to-1-reproductive-success
  27. ^ Cashdan, Elizabeth (2014). "Does Height Matter? An Examination of Height Preferences in Romantic Coupling". Journal of Family Issues. 5.
  28. ^ "Voice pitch and the labor market success of male chief executive officers". Evolution and Human Behavior. 2013.
  29. ^ "The height leadership advantage in men and women: Testing evolutionary psychology predictions about the perceptions of tall leaders". Evolution and Human Behavior. 2013.
  30. ^ "Why Is Muscularity Sexy? Tests of the Fitness Indicator Hypothesis". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2007.
  31. ^ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2010.0769
  32. ^ https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/26/6/1470/204957?login=true
  33. ^ "Physical strength and dance attractiveness: Further evidence for an association in men, but not in women". American Journal of Biology. 2015.
  34. ^ https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/evolution-the-self/201204/why-do-women-fall-serial-killers
  35. ^ https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-44281-5_2
  36. ^ https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/ted-bundy-charles-manson-women-14188211
  37. ^ "Breivik 'gets love letters from 16-year-old girls'". The Local. 18 June 2012.
  38. ^ Allen, Charlotte (22 May 2013). "Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and his fangirls". Los Angeles Times.
  39. ^ https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/opinion/the-conversation/sdut-fan-letters-james-holmes-released-2015sep12-story.html
  40. ^ https://www.sun-sentinel.com/local/broward/parkland/florida-school-shooting/fl-reg-nikolas-cruz-prison-love-letters-20180327-story.html
  41. ^ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224499509551792
  42. ^ Setchell, J. M.; Dixson A.F. (2001). "Changes in the Secondary Sexual Adornments of Male Mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) Are Associated with Gain and Loss of Alpha Status". Hormones and Behavior. 39 (3): 177–84. doi:10.1006/hbeh.2000.1628. PMID 11300708. S2CID 7560147.
  43. ^ "Mask of the Mandrill". PBS. November 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  44. ^ Setchell, J. M.; Jean Wickings, E. (2005). "Dominance, status signals and coloration in male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx)". Ethology. 111: 25–50. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01054.x.
  45. ^ Dixson, A. F.; Bossi, T.; Wickings, E. J. (1993). "Male dominance and genetically determined reproductive success in the mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx)". Primates. 34 (4): 525–532. doi:10.1007/BF02382663. S2CID 23310067.
  46. ^ Setchell, J. M.; Dixson A.F. (2002). "Developmental Variables and Dominance Rank in Adolescent Male Mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx)". American Journal of Primatology. 56 (1): 9–25. doi:10.1002/ajp.1060. PMID 11793410. S2CID 25762754.
  47. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Elephant seals. Friends of the Elephant Seal. San Luis Obispo, Calif.: Central Coast Press. 1999. ISBN 9780965877695. OCLC 44446823.CS1 maint: others (link)
  48. ^ a b Laws, R (1956). "The Elephant Seal: General, Social, and Reproductive Behavior". Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey. 13.
  49. ^ "Schenkel's Classic Wolf Behavior Study Available in English". Davemech.org. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  50. ^ Mech, L. David. (1999). "Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 77 (8): 1196–1203. doi:10.1139/z99-099. Archived from the original on 14 December 2005.
  51. ^ Greenberg & Haraway 1998
  52. ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2009). N. Stromberg (ed.). "Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus". GlobalTwitcher.com. Archived from the original on 9 December 2010.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

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