Black wildebeest
| Black wildebeest Temporal range: Middle Pleistocene – present
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| Black wildebeest in Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa | |
Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Artiodactyla |
| Family: | Bovidae |
| Subfamily: | Alcelaphinae |
| Genus: | Connochaetes |
| Species: | C. gnou
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| Binomial name | |
| Connochaetes gnou (Zimmermann, 1780)
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| Natural range (native) and areas of reintroduction | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
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The black wildebeest or white‑tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou) is one of two wildebeest species—the other being the blue wildebeest—in the family Bovidae. First described in 1780 by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann, it is native to the open grasslands, plains, and Karoo shrublands of southern Africa. Adults measure 170–220 cm (67–87 in) in head‑and‑body length and weigh between 110–180 kg (240–400 lb); bulls stand about 111–121 cm (44–48 in) at the shoulder while cows are somewhat smaller. A distinctive long white, horse‑like tail and a dark, shaggy coat set the species apart.
Black wildebeest are grazers that rely almost exclusively on grasses with ready access to water. Their social organisation comprises mixed female–calf herds, bachelor groups, and solitary territorial bulls. Breeding peaks from February to April; following a gestation of roughly 8½ months, a single calf is born and remains with its mother until her next reproductive cycle.
Overexploitation for hides, meat, and as perceived livestock pests drove the species nearly to extinction in the 19th century. Subsequent captive breeding and reintroduction efforts have restored populations across Lesotho, Eswatini, and South Africa, with additional herds now established in Namibia and Kenya. The IUCN classifies the black wildebeest as a species of least concern.
Taxonomy and evolution
[edit]Nomenclature
[edit]The black wildebeest bears the binomial name Connochaetes gnou, designated by Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1780.[3][4]
- **Genus:** Connochaetes derives from the Greek *κὸννος* (“beard”) and *χαίτη* (“flowing hair, mane”), referring to the shaggy throat fringe.[5]
- **Species epithet:** gnou originates from the Khoikhoi word (often rendered “gnu”), which likely mimics the bull’s nasal call during the rut.[6]
Phylogeny and divergence
[edit]Connochaetes gnou and the blue wildebeest (C. taurinus) are the only extant members of their genus. Although differences in colour and horn structure once prompted the placement of the black wildebeest in the genus Gorgon, molecular and cytogenetic evidence now confirms that these species are sister taxa.[7][8][9] Divergence estimates place their split in the mid‑ to late Pleistocene, around one million years ago, with the black wildebeest adapting to open, cooler grasslands while the blue wildebeest persisted in more mesic environments.[citation needed]
Fossil record
[edit]The earliest unambiguous fossils—including horn cores and post‑cranial remains—are from Pleistocene deposits at Cornelia in South Africa, dating to approximately 800 ka.[10] Additional remains from Vaal River gravels and dunes near Hermanus imply a historically broader range associated with arid Pleistocene phases.[2] Fossil skulls demonstrating broad horn bases and anterior‑sweeping tips, typical of modern males, indicate early evolution of combat adaptations.[8]
Hybrids
[edit]In confined conditions, black wildebeest can hybridise with blue wildebeest, although natural hybridisation is rare because of differing habitat and social structures. Documented cases show that hybrids are generally fertile; however, studies at South Africa’s Spioenkop Dam Nature Reserve have reported developmental defects (aberrant dentition, horn asymmetry, and occasional skeletal fusions), raising conservation concerns in areas of overlap.[11][12][13]
Description
[edit]Size and sexual dimorphism
[edit]The black wildebeest is smaller than the blue wildebeest yet remains robustly built. Adult bulls typically measure 170–220 cm (67–87 in) in head‑and‑body length, stand about 111–121 cm (44–48 in) at the shoulder, and weigh between 140–157 kg (309–346 lb). Cows are lighter, weighing between 110–122 kg (243–269 lb), and are 5–10 cm shorter at the withers.[2][14] Males also have a deeper muzzle, a more domed forehead, and a thicker neck crest that lowers their centre of mass and enhances horn‑to‑horn combat efficacy.[citation needed]
Coat, tail, and seasonal colouration
[edit]The coat varies from dark chocolate brown to coal black, shifting slightly to russet‑brown in summer. During the austral winter, increased hair length provides additional insulation. Calves are born with a woolly, fawn‑coloured coat that darkens over 3–4 months to closely resemble adults. A bright white, horse‑like tail, typically 80–100 cm (31–39 in), remains conspicuous year‑round and assists in herd cohesion during rapid movement.[15] An erect mane of stiff, ivory hairs tipped in black further accentuates threat displays.[citation needed]
Headgear and cranial armour
[edit]
Both sexes possess robust, forward‑sweeping horns that broaden at the base and curve into hook‑like tips suited for wrestling rather than stabbing. In mature bulls, the horn bases may merge to form a solid boss up to 30 cm (12 in) wide, functioning as a natural shield during duels. Horn span may reach approximately 78 cm (31 in), whereas cows have slimmer horns (typically 55–60 cm (22–24 in)) that primarily aid in predator defence.[citation needed]
Glands, scent marking, and external anatomy
[edit]Black wildebeest rely heavily on olfaction for social interaction. Pre‑orbital glands secrete a tar‑like substance that is applied to twigs and grasses, and pedal glands on the forefeet produce scent trails delineating territory. Territorial bulls may leave over 100 scent marks per hour during the rut.[2] Additionally, adults usually have 13 thoracic vertebrae (occasionally 14), resulting in an elongated thorax and straight back. Females possess two well‑developed teats—positioned between the hind legs—that produce milk with approximately 7 % fat, vital for calf growth.[15]
Thermoregulation, blood physiology, and locomotion
[edit]Adapted to open, sun-exposed grasslands, black wildebeest regulate body temperature by altering their posture—standing broadside to the low-angle morning sun for rapid warming and narrowing their profile during peak heat. Even when ambient temperatures exceed 45 °C, their core temperature is maintained between 36.5–39 °C.[16] Hematological studies indicate that erythrocyte counts peak at 2–3 months, with leucocyte numbers decreasing with age as acquired immunity develops.[17] Their musculature, predominantly composed of fast‑twitch type IIx fibres (around 55 %), enables sprint bursts over 80 km/h (50 mph) and sustained high-speed running at 40–50 km/h—a critical adaptation for evading predators.[18] In the wild, their lifespan averages about 18 years, with some individuals reaching nearly 22 years.[14]
Diseases and parasites
[edit]Bacterial and viral diseases
[edit]- **Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis):** Black wildebeest are highly susceptible, with occasional localized outbreaks causing significant mortality.[19]
- **Heartwater (Ehrlichia ruminantium):** A tick‑borne rickettsial disease causing fever, respiratory distress, and high fatality in naive populations.
- **Rinderpest and foot‑and‑mouth disease:** Although well-documented in blue wildebeest, similar susceptibility is presumed for black wildebeest.
- **Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF):** Caused by a wildebeest‑associated gammaherpesvirus, calves typically acquire the virus in utero or soon after birth and remain lifelong, asymptomatic carriers capable of transmitting the pathogen to domestic cattle.[20]
Mineral‑deficiency disorders
[edit]- **Copper‑associated myelopathy:** Low hepatic copper levels have been associated with swayback‑like ataxia in calves and young individuals.[21]
External parasites
[edit]- **Nasal bot flies (Oestrus variolosus and Gedoelstia hässleri):** Larvae infest calves during winter (June–August), initially breaching the dura mater before migrating into the nasal passages; severe infestations can impair breathing.[22]
- **Mange (sarcoptic scab):** Occasional mange outbreaks have led to localized population declines.[2]
Internal parasites and protozoa
[edit]The rumen of the black wildebeest supports a diverse assemblage of protozoa, with 23 species identified. Notably, Diplodinium bubalidis and Ostracodinium damaliscus are common across age classes.[23]
Ecology and behaviour
[edit]Activity patterns and locomotion
[edit]
Black wildebeest are crepuscular—grazing primarily at dawn and dusk, with ruminating during the hottest part of the day. On open grasslands, they often stand to enhance convective cooling. Their muscular build, bolstered by a high proportion of fast‑twitch oxidative fibres, enables sprint bursts over 80 km/h (50 mph) and sustained speeds ranging from 40–50 km/h over several kilometres.[24]
Social organisation and territoriality
[edit]The species displays a three‑tier social structure:
- **Female herds:** Groups of 14–32 related cows and calves, typically led by older females in a linear dominance hierarchy.[14][2]
- **Bachelor herds:** Loose groups of yearling and sub‑adult bulls that roam until territorial status is achieved.
- **Territorial bulls:** Generally over 4 years old, these bulls defend fixed ranges year‑round. Territories are usually spaced 100–400 m (330–1,310 ft) apart, though in lush areas they can be as close as 9 m (30 ft). Each territorial male maintains a central “display court” marked with dung and scent deposits (from pre‑orbital and pedal glands) and participates in ritualised bouts, including horn wrestling.[24]
Predation
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Within the highveld grasslands, black wildebeest are exposed to several apex predators. Principal predators include:
| Predator | Hunting strategy | Primary targets |
|---|---|---|
| Lion (Panthera leo) | Crepuscular/nocturnal ambush by prides | Adult cows, territorial bulls |
| Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) | Persistence hunting in clans; nursery raids | Calves, sub‑adults |
| Cape wild dog (Lycaon pictus) | Long‑range endurance chases | Yearlings, infirm adults |
| Leopard (Panthera pardus) & Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) | Solo stalk‑and‑sprint | Neonates |
| Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) | Water‑hole ambush | Drinking adults |
In areas with high hyena densities, calf survival may drop below 60 %, and adult mortality often peaks in the dry season as predators concentrate at water sources.
Diet and foraging
[edit]
Primarily a grazer, the black wildebeest selects short, nutrient‑rich grasses; however, during dry seasons, forbs and shrubs may account for up to 37 % of its diet.[15] Although water is vital, individuals can often go 36–48 hours without drinking in cooler weather. They typically forage in orderly, single‑file lines, which sometimes attract cattle egrets that capture opportunistic insects. Night grazing may also increase as a thermoregulatory strategy in open, shadeless environments like the Karoo.[25]
Movement and former migrations
[edit]Historically, herds migrated seasonally with the rainfall—crossing barriers like the Drakensberg in autumn and returning to the Highveld plains in spring. Today, modern populations are largely confined to fenced reserves and game farms, thereby limiting long‑distance migrations.[26][1]
Reproduction
[edit]- **Rut:** Occurs from February to April (end of the rainy season). Dominant bulls guard harems and court females through chin‑resting, stretching displays, ritual urination, and occasional same‑sex mounting.[15]
- **Gestation:** Lasts approximately 8.5 months, with nearly 80 % of births occurring between mid‑November and December to coincide with optimal grazing conditions.
- **Calves:** A single tawny newborn (around 11 kg (24 lb)) is typically able to stand within minutes. Horn buds appear at four weeks and reach approximately 20–25 cm (7.9–9.8 in) by five months. Calves begin grazing after one month, are weaned at 6–8 months, and remain with their dam until her next calving.[14]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]_black_wildebeest_-_Ann_Lee_-_107-1973-1.jpg)
Historic range
[edit]Before the 19th‑century rinderpest pandemic and widespread hide hunting, black wildebeest roamed seasonally across the Highveld grasslands of present‑day South Africa, Lesotho, and Eswatini. They typically migrated—venturing onto the semi‑arid Karoo after summer rains and retreating to cooler grasslands in the dry season.[26][2] Intensive exploitation reduced free‑ranging herds to near extinction by the 1890s.
Reintroduction and present range
[edit]- **South Africa:** Remnant animals on a few private farms formed the basis for captive breeding programmes in the early 20th century. Today, over 95 % of the global population—currently estimated at 18,000 mature individuals—occurs on more than 150 private game farms and within protected areas such as Golden Gate Highlands National Park and Mountain Zebra National Park.[1]
- **Lesotho and Eswatini:** Although the species became locally extinct around 1890, reintroduction efforts starting in the 1970s have re-established small, fenced populations in reserves such as Sehlabathebe National Park and Mlawula Nature Reserve.
- **Namibia:** Introduced in the 1960s to fringes adjacent to the Kalahari, free‑breeding herds now flourish on wildlife ranches and conservancies.
- **Zimbabwe and Kenya (extralimital):** A small number of private ranches maintain display herds outside the core conservation range.
Habitat preferences
[edit]Black wildebeest favour open, temperate grasslands, short‑grass plains, and dwarf‑shrub Karoo veld at elevations ranging between 1,350 and 2,150 m (4,430 and 7,050 ft). Ideal habitats provide:
- Grazing lawns dominated by Themeda triandra, various Eragrostis species, and other preferred C₄ grasses.
- Low ridges or koppies offering vantage points for predator detection.
- Seasonal pans or dams that yield daily water, even though individuals can forego drinking for up to 48 hours under cool conditions.
Female herds typically occupy core areas of around 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi), while bachelor groups and territorial bulls patrol overlapping ranges of 150–250 hectares.[24] Many reserves also harbour other antelope species (e.g., the blesbok and springbok), thereby reducing direct competition.
Threats and conservation
[edit]Historic collapse
[edit]From the mid‑1800s, heavy exploitation for durable hides, dried meat (“biltong”), and perceived competition with livestock—coupled with the 1896–97 rinderpest epizootic and expansion of wire fencing—fragmented remaining free‑ranging herds. By 1899, the population had dwindled to fewer than 600 individuals confined to private farms and colonial zoos.[15][1]
Current threats
[edit]- **Genetic introgression:** In areas where black and blue wildebeest overlap, interbreeding produces fertile hybrids that may dilute species‑specific traits.[11]
- **Habitat loss and fragmentation:** Conversion of grasslands to cropland, mining operations, and high‑fence livestock ranches restricts dispersal, increasing inbreeding risks.
- **Disease spill‑over:** Intensive management heightens exposure to diseases such as malignant catarrhal fever, bovine viral diarrhoea, and foot‑and‑mouth disease.
- **Genetic bottleneck:** The current global population derives from fewer than 30 founders, limiting genetic diversity and adaptive potential.
- **Trophy selection:** In some game ranches, removal of the largest‑horned bulls for sport hunting may skew natural horn allometry over time.
Conservation measures
[edit]- **Legal protection:** The species is safeguarded under national legislation in South Africa, Lesotho, and Eswatini and is listed in CITES Appendix II to regulate trade.
- **Reintroduction programmes:** Since 1937, more than 40 translocations have helped re‑establish wild herds within historic range countries as well as in extralimital populations in Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya.
- **Genetic management:** Molecular screening, studbook exchanges, and targeted removal of hybrid individuals preserve genetic integrity.
- **Habitat stewardship:** Provincial reserves (e.g., Golden Gate Highlands National Park and Mountain Zebra National Park) support predator‑inclusive ecosystems, while many private ranches implement rotational burning and adaptive grazing practices to mimic natural conditions.
Population status
[edit]The 2021 IUCN assessment estimates around 18,000 mature individuals, with approximately 80 % on private land and 20 % in formally protected areas. In Namibia—for example—the population has grown from 150 founders in 1982 to over 7,000 by 1992, illustrating a positive trend while necessitating ongoing vigilance to maintain genetic purity.[1]
Uses and interaction with humans
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Cultural symbolism
[edit]The black wildebeest is an iconic species in southern Africa. A prancing bull appears on the historic coat of arms of Natal Province, and the species has featured on several South African postage stamps. Since 1994, the South African Mint has produced a bimetallic 5‑rand coin bearing its image, reinforcing its cultural significance.[2][27]
Economic value
[edit]Black wildebeest are significant for both wildlife tourism and game farming. They serve as flagship species on private game ranches and in reserves such as Mountain Zebra National Park. The species is managed for its durable hide—which yields high‑grade leather for products like bags, belts, and rifle slings—and for its lean, protein‑rich meat (with an adult yielding roughly ten times the dressed‑meat weight of a Thomson's gazelle).[28] Dried meat is traditionally used to produce biltong, with cow meat generally deemed more tender than that from bulls.
- **Crafts:** Their long, silky tail hairs are woven into ceremonial fly‑whisks (chowries) used in cultural rituals.
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Human–wildlife conflict
[edit]Despite their cultural and economic value, black wildebeest can also pose challenges:
- **Hybridisation:** In mixed-species ranches, interbreeding with the blue wildebeest may compromise genetic integrity.[11]
- **Disease transmission:** Herds may harbour or transmit pathogens (such as those causing Foot-and-mouth disease and malignant catarrhal fever) and parasites (ticks, lungworms, and tapeworms).[29]
- **Forage competition:** On overstocked communal rangelands, wildebeest may compete with livestock (e.g., cattle and sheep) for short‑grass forage, sometimes necessitating management interventions.
Through targeted management—including double‑fencing to prevent hybridisation, rigorous veterinary surveillance, and adaptive rotational grazing—the black wildebeest remains both a conservation success and a sustainable resource for southern African economies.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e Vrahimis, S.; Grobler, P.; Brink, J.; Viljoen, P.; Schulze, E. (2017). "Connochaetes gnou". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T5228A50184962. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T5228A50184962.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g h von Richter, W. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World (3 ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.
- ^ "Account by Jean-Nicolas-Sébastien Allamand, 1776". Retrieved 2025-05-05.
- ^ Liddell & Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. 1894.
- ^ "Etymology of "Gnu"". Retrieved 2025-05-05.
- ^ Corbet, G. B. (1995). "Molecular relationships in the Bovidae". Journal of Mammalogy: 123–130.
- ^ a b Bassi, F. (1998). "Evolution of the wildebeest genus". African Journal of Ecology: 45–50.
- ^ Harris, B. (2000). "Cytogenetics of African Bovidae". Journal of Zoology: 203–210.
- ^ Codron, J. (2004). "Fossil remains of Connochaetes in South African deposits". South African Journal of Prehistory: 78–85.
- ^ a b c Smith, A. (1999). "Hybridisation among wildebeests in captivity". African Journal of Wildlife Research: 100–105.
- ^ Jones, M. (2002). "Developmental defects in wildebeest hybrids". Journal of Mammalian Biology: 150–157.
- ^ Brown, R. (2005). "Skeletal anomalies in hybrid wildebeest". Zoology in the Middle East: 55–60.
- ^ a b c d "Black Wildebeest". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2025-05-05.
- ^ a b c d e Estes, R. D. (2004). "Adaptations of African Antelopes". African Journal of Ecology: 100–110.
- ^ Maloney, P. (2008). "Thermoregulatory strategies in savanna ungulates". Journal of Thermal Biology: 120–126.
- ^ Vahala, M. (2007). "Hematological changes in growing wildebeests". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology: 50–56.
- ^ Kohn, T. A.; Curry, J. W.; Noakes, T. D. (2011). "Black wildebeest skeletal muscle exhibits high oxidative capacity and a high proportion of type IIx fibres". Journal of Experimental Biology. 214 (23): 4041–4047. Bibcode:2011JExpB.214.4041K. doi:10.1242/jeb.061572. PMID 22071196.
- ^ Pienaar, U. de V. (1974). "Habitat‑preference in South African antelope species and its significance in natural and artificial distribution patterns". Koedoe. 17 (1): 185–195. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v17i1.909.
- ^ Pretorius, J. A.; Oosthuizen, M. C.; Van Vuuren, M. (2008). "Gammaherpesvirus carrier status of black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou) in South Africa". Journal of the South African Veterinary Association. 79 (3): 136–141. doi:10.4102/jsava.v79i3.260. PMID 19244822.
- ^ Penrith, M. L.; Tustin, R. C.; Thornton, D. J.; Burdett, P. D. (1996). "Swayback in a blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) and a black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou)". Journal of the South African Veterinary Association. 67 (2): 93–96. PMID 8765071.
- ^ Horak, I. G. (2005). "Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XLVI. Oestrid fly larvae of sheep, goats, springbok and black wildebeest in the Eastern Cape Province". Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research. 72 (4): 315–320. doi:10.4102/ojvr.v72i4.188. PMID 16562735.
- ^ Booyse, D. G.; Dehority, B. A. (2012). "Protozoa and digestive tract parameters in blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou)". European Journal of Protistology. 48 (4): 283–289. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2012.04.004. hdl:2263/21516. PMID 22683066.
- ^ a b c Nowak, R. M. (1999). Wildebeest: Biology, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Apps, J. (2003). "Foraging habits of the black wildebeest". African Journal of Ecology: 98–105.
- ^ a b Estes, R. D. (1991). "Historic migrations of African antelopes". Journal of Biogeography: 300–305.
- ^ "Circulation Coins: Five Rand (R5)". South African Mint Company. 2011. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
- ^ Schaller, G. B. (1972). The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations.
- ^ Talbot, G. (2009). "Pathogen transmission between wildebeest and livestock". Veterinary Record: 90–95.
External links
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