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Carnival in Italy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Carnival of Venice in St Mark's Square

Carnival in Italy is a farewell party to eat, drink, and have fun before the limitations and solemnity of Lent. About a month before Ash Wednesday, Italians celebrate over many weekends with parades, masks, and confetti. The origins of this event may be traced to ancient Greece and Rome, when they worshipped Bacchus and Saturn.

Some think they date back to archaic winter-to-spring ceremonies. Despite its pagan origins, the event was so extensively celebrated and the tradition so powerful that it was swiftly altered to fit into Catholic rituals. Carnival in Italy is traditionally celebrated on Fat Tuesday, but the weekend prior features activities as well. The most famous Carnivals in Italy are those held in Venice, Viareggio, Ivrea, Cento, Apulia and Acireale. These Carnivals include masquerades and parades.

History

[edit]
Carnival of Venice, by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo, 1750

Although the origins of Carnival may be traced back to ancient Greek and Roman celebrations, it is associated with the Catholic world. In actuality, it is celebrated on holidays, the final day before Lent when feasting is permitted. Therefore, it does not have a fixed date, but rather relies on the day of Easter. In different places, the celebrations grew into a party and a parade for diverse causes. Whether the higher classes were exhibiting their wealth with elegantly decorated carriages, or the poorer classes were following troops through the streets, Carnival evolved across Italy. Many Carnivals were prohibited in the 18th century, only to be reinstated in the 20th.

Venice

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The Venetian Carnival tradition is most famous for its distinctive masks.

The Carnival of Venice is an annual festival held in Venice, Italy, famous throughout the world for its elaborate costumes and masks. The Carnival ends on Shrove Tuesday (Martedì Grasso or Mardi Gras), which is the day before the start of Lent on Ash Wednesday. The Carnival traces its origins to the Middle Ages, existing for several centuries until it was abolished in 1797. The tradition was revived in 1979.[1]

The Carnival in Venice was first documented in 1296, with a proclamation by the Venetian Senate announcing a public festival the day before the start of Lent. Unquestionably one of the most well-known Carnival festivities in the world, the Carnival of Venice is rife with mystery, adventure, and conspiracy. The day served to break down barriers between people of different economic standings and religious beliefs. During the Renaissance, masked comic performers performed in Venice's piazzas. Today, about 3 million people travel to Venice to take part in the famous Festa veneziana.[2] This makes it the most important event in the city and the biggest Carnival celebration in Italy.

According to legend, the Carnival of Venice began after the military victory of the Venetian Republic over the patriarch of Aquileia, Ulrich II, in the year 1162. In honour of this, the people started to dance and gather in St Mark's Square. Apparently, this festival started in that period and became official during the Renaissance.[3] In the 17th century, the Baroque Carnival preserved the prestigious image of Venice in the world.[4] It was very famous during the 18th century.[5] It encouraged licence and pleasure, but it was also used to protect Venetians from present and future anguish.[6] However, under the rule of Emperor Francis II, the festival was outlawed entirely in 1797 and the use of masks became strictly forbidden. It reappeared gradually in the 19th century, but only for short periods and above all for private feasts, where it became an occasion for artistic creations.[7]

Viareggio

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Viareggio Carnival 2011, Uer iz de parti?

The Carnival of Viareggio is the second-most popular in Italy. The Carnival of Viareggio is a carnival event annually held in the Tuscan city of Viareggio, Italy. It is considered amongst the most renowned carnival celebrations in both Italy and Europe. Its main characteristic is given by the parade of floats and masks, usually made of paper-pulp, depicting caricatures of popular people, such as politicians, showmen, and sportsmen; the parade is held on the Viareggio avenue located alongside the local beach. Every year, the Carnevale di Viareggio attracts more than 500,000 spectators.[8]

Carnival celebrations are scheduled every weekend night in the city's different quarters or Rioni with the best known bars, restaurants, discos and hotels in Versilia hosting all-night colourful masked parties. Additionally, during the four-week celebration, plays in vernacular language are staged around the city. The carnival has papier-mâché gargantuan allegorical floats with the largest ones weighing about 40 st (560 lb; 254 kg) and reaching 14 m (46 ft). The Carnival Giant Float Parades take place along a 2-kilometre-long (2,000 m) ring set aside Viareggio's Liberty era boardwalk, best known as La Passeggiata.[9]

The first Viareggio Carnival parade was held in 1873,[10] when some wealthy middle-class men decided to organize a parade of floats adorned with flowers; a number of local citizens, as a sign of protest, then decided to put on masks in order to show their refusal of high taxes they were forced to pay.[11] The first float to win the parade, in 1883, was named I Quattro Mori ('The Four Moors'), an accurate representation of the Livorno statue of the same name.[12] The official mascot of the Viareggio Carnival is a Burlamacco, first depicted in 1931 by Uberto Bonetti.[10] Since 2001, all the floats are built in an apposite seat, called Cittadella del Carnevale ('Carnival Citadel').[13]

Ivrea

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The Battle of the Oranges at the Carnival of Ivrea, in Ivrea, Italy

The Carnival of Ivrea is famous for its "Battle of the Oranges" fought with fruit between the people on foot and the troops of the tyrant on carts, to remember the wars of the Middle Ages,[14] allegory of struggle for freedom. The Carnival of Ivrea is a festival in the Northern Italian city of Ivrea that includes a tradition of throwing oranges between organized groups, known as the "Battle of the Oranges". It is the largest food fight in Italy and surrounding countries.[15]

Regarding the origins, a popular account has it that the battle commemorates the city's defiance against the city's tyrant, who is either a member of the Ranieri family[16] or a conflation of the 12th-century Ranieri di Biandrate and the 13th-century Marquis William VII of Montferrat.[17] This tyrant attempted to rape a young commoner (often specified as a miller's daughter[18]) on the evening of her wedding, supposedly exercising the droit du seigneur. The tyrant's plan backfired when the young woman instead decapitated him, after which the populace stormed and burned the palace.[19] Each year, a young girl is chosen to play the part of Violetta, the defiant young woman.[15][20]

Every year the citizens remember their liberation with the "Battle of the Oranges", where teams of aranceri (orange handlers) on foot throw oranges (representing old weapons and stones) against aranceri riding in carts (representing the tyrant's ranks). During the 19th-century French occupation of Italy, the Carnival of Ivrea was modified to add representatives of the French army. Another adaptation of the story has the oranges used to symbolize the removed testicles of the tyrant.

The oldest rituals of Ivrea Carnival include a large bonfire and are similar to ancient celebrations linked to the end of winter and the rise of the new spring. The battle was on hiatus during 2021, but returned in 2023. Other cancellations occurred in 1915–18 & 1940–45.

Foiano della Chiana

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Carnival of Foiano della Chiana

The Carnival of Foiano della Chiana is a carnival event yearly held in the Tuscan city of Foiano della Chiana, in Tuscany. It is one of the most famous carnivals in Italy, even the oldest, starting in 1539. This carnival takes all year to prepare for, and it’s as important to Foiano as the Palio is to Siena. It is one of the most famous carnivals in Italy, even the oldest, starting in 1539. This carnival takes all year to prepare for, and it’s as important to Foiano as the Palio is to Siena. The festival is derived from medieval propitiatory rituals meant to appease the townspeople and create a joyous atmosphere to bring in the new year.

The population of Foiano is subdivided into four cantieri (districts): the oldest are the "Azzurri" (azures) and the "Rustici" (rustics), that were created in 1933, and "Bombolo" (plump), which was born in 1934; the youngest cantiere are the "Nottambuli" (night owls), formed in 1961. Other three cantieri, the "Pacifici" (peacefuls), "Cuccioli" (puppies) and "Vitelloni" (big calves) disappeared during the 1940s-1950s. The cantieri compete in making a float, inspired to a free subject.

Initially, the floats were town carriages and carri matti where lupine, chestnuts and salt cod would be thrown out to the crowd as a treat. The floats are now made of papier-mâché and they have allegorical or political subjects, sometimes featuring political or actuality events, famous people or popular culture. The floats are judged by a jury, composed by a sculptor, a painter, a journalist, a scenographer and an art critic. The Cantiere that made the most voted float wins the "Coppa del Carnevale" (Carnival Cup). An effigy of Giocondo, King of the Carnival is made from straw and rags, and is burned in the main square as a form of collective purification for the people of Foiano. Before the burning, a testament of the year’s events is read aloud like an epilogue for the past year and a prologue to the new starting year.

Satriano di Lucania

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Carnival of Satriano di Lucania

The Carnival of Satriano di Lucania, held in Satriano di Lucania every February, is one of the country's many carnivals.[21] Held on the Friday, Saturday and Sunday before Fat Tuesday (a Mardi Gras festival), it has been conducted for centuries.[22] The event is among the most important carnival traditions of the region and of Italy and it is unique in that participants wear costumes, or masks,[21][23] of bears, hermits, or lent.[22]

The carnival has been held for centuries,[22][24] but its origins are largely unknown. One theory is that it comes from the historical destruction of the ancient town Satrianum by Queen Joanna II of Anjou-Durazzo after an aristocratic girl and protégée of the queen was raped in 1421 by young men wearing goat skins.[25] Three symbols, or masks, represent the nature of the crime. Representing the young men dressed in animal skins are skin-cladden bears. Poverty following the destruction of the town is represented by the hermits and sadness is represented by the lent, the women dressed in black.[25]

Another hypothesis promoted before World War II is that a Franciscan hermit lived in poverty in the woods by the town and came to the town in search of food.[26] The meaning of the symbolic figures have changed over time. Originally, the bear took revenge for people who have wrongly suffered and disguised himself in the skins of goats and sheep.[27] The hermit, a tree-like man, chose to live in the forest of his homeland rather than migrate to another area.[24] In the past, the hermit received food for visiting homes and silently giving an omen during the festival.[27][28]

Carnival, little carnival, give me a bit of salami, and if you do not want to give me that, I hope that it soon rots.

— translation of a nursery rhyme

For a period of time, and by 2013, the festival or some of its customs were not observed.[24] Now, the carnival focuses on ecological values.[23][28] The carnival is organized by the town of Satriano di Lucania in collaboration with Al Parco and the Lucano Apennine National Park. Private companies, associations, and volunteers coordinate efforts to conduct the carnival. It kicks off with a parade of costumed people from Basilicata towns Teana, Cirigliano, Aliano, Montescaglioso, San Mauro Forte, Tricarico, and Lavello on Friday night, and concludes at Abbamonte square, where there are food stands and folk music.[22][29]

Acireale

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Winning float 2008 edition «Down with the mask» (Francesco Cavallaro) Acireale

The Carnival of Acireale, considered one of the most important carnivals in Italy, Europe and the world,[30] takes place every year in the city of Acireale, Sicily. Among its characteristics is the parade of allegorical and flowered floats. The parade of allegorical-grotesque papier-mâché floats takes place every year during the carnival. The floats give their show through thousands of light bulbs and lights, spectacular movements and constantly evolving scenography during the performances.

The first official document that mentions the event is a payment order from 1594. In the 17th century, it was customary to have a battle of oranges and lemons, so heartfelt that on 3 March 1612, the Criminal Court was forced to ban it to put an end to serious events that often resulted in injuries to people or caused significant damage to property. In 1693, the earthquake that devastated eastern Sicily (the 1693 Sicily earthquake) also decreed a period of mourning and for several years the traditional carnival was not held. But already at the beginning of the 18th century, the event was reborn, probably also encouraged by the moment of great excitement and hope that had been created with the post-earthquake reconstruction. Some new masks entered the scene, 'u baruni (the baron) and the very famous Manti. From 1880, the parades of allegorical floats began. Initially, they were preceded by decorated carriages of the nobles (called cassariate or landaus) and later papier-mâché carts were thought of. Papier-mâché was thought of because in the city there were many craftsmen who already used this technique for decorations.

The exquisite floats decked with fresh flowers, which give beauty and fragrance to the streets of Acireale, are largely responsible for the Carnival's reputation as one of Italy's most stunning. In the 16th century, revelers in "Acireale" used to celebrate Carnival by flinging rotten eggs and lemons, but when these activities were formally outlawed, they were replaced with far more refined traditions. Today, both floats and poets may be found at the Acireale Carnival, which is widely regarded as the "best Carnival in Sicily". In fact, it is so popular that the entire affair is recreated in August's mild summer weather. The parade of allegorical-grotesque papier-mâché floats takes place every year during the carnival. The characteristic that distinguishes them in Europe is the sophistication and the impressive use of lights and mechanisms. The floats give their show through thousands of light bulbs and lights, spectacular movements and scenography that is constantly evolving during the performances.

Putignano

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Carnival of Putignano

The Carnival of Putignano is an event that takes place annually in the city of Putignano, in Apulia. In 2025 it reached its 631st edition.[31] The characteristic mask of the event is Farinella, which owes its name to the dish of the same name, typical of Putignano. It is organized annually by the Carnival Foundation of Putignano.[32]

According to tradition, the Carnival of Putignano dates back to 1394, when the Saracen raids on the coasts of Apulia required the relics of the protomartyr Saint Stephen, protector of the city of Putignano, to be moved from the Abbey of Monopoli towards the hinterland, to be able to defend them more easily.

Putignano was chosen as the destination for the transfer: upon the arrival of the relics, the farmers, at that time busy with the grafting of the vine (the so-called propaggine, 'offshoot'), left the fields and joyfully joined the procession, abandoning themselves to dancing and singing. There were then some who recited jokes, verses and improvised satires in the vernacular. According to historians, the propaggini were born at that moment, still today the heart of the local carnival tradition and an event that marks the beginning of the event, every 26 December.[33]

Certainly, we should not forget the theory of some scholars, which would have the roots of the Carnival of Putignano in the last centuries BC, at the time when the city was a colony of Magna Graecia and propitiatory rites towards the god Dionysus were frequent.[34]

In this case, 1394 would represent the passage of "Christianization" of an already existing pagan festival. It is only in the first half of the 20th century that the artisan mastery of the country makes its entrance as protagonists in the Carnival of Putignano, putting art, passion and competence at the complete disposal of the playful carnival fun.

Sardinia

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Parade of mamuthones and issohadores of the Carnival of Mamoiada

In Sardinia, the Carnival (in Sardinian language Carrasecare or Carrasegare[35]) varies greatly from the one in the mainland of Italy. the majority of the Sardinian celebrations features not only feasts and parades but also crude fertility rites such as bloodsheds to fertilize the land,[36] the death and the resurrection of the Carnival characters[37] and representations of violence and torture.[36] The typical characters of the Sardinian Carnival are zoomorphic and/or androgynous, such as the Mamuthones and Issohadores[38] from Mamoiada, the Boes and Merdules[39] from Ottana and many more.[40] The Carnival is celebrated with street performances[41] that are typically accompanied by Sardinian dirges called attittidus,[42] meaning literally "cry of a baby when the mother doesn't want nursed him/her anymore" (from the word titta meaning breasts[43]). Other particular and important Carnival instances in Sardinia are the Sartiglia in Oristano and the Tempio Pausania Carnival.[44]

Sartiglia of Oristano

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Sartiglia in Oristano, Sardinia
Corsa alla stella ('Race to the Star') of the Sartiglia of Oristano

The Sartiglia is a large race held on the last Sunday and Tuesday of Carnival in the city of Oristano, where Carnival and Sartiglia are practically synonymous. It is one of the oldest equestrian events still held in the Mediterranean area and among the most choreographic forms of carnival in Sardinia. It echoes rites of agrarian regeneration.

The term Sartiglia derives from the Spanish Sortija, in turn deriving from the Latin sorticula, meaning ring, and retains the diminutive sors, luck. The origins of the joust lie in ancient military tournaments, in the race for the star with sword and sabre that has been handed down over the years. It consists of the knights attempting to hit the target, a star, hanging from a green ribbon.

The introduction of military games used to train militias in Europe probably occurred thanks to the Crusaders around the 11th century, who in turn had learned the practice from their Saracen enemies. The race underwent many evolutions and was preserved with some variations. Over time and with the introduction of gunpowder, the lance fell into disuse and equestrian jousts were used only as an exercise for cavalry recruits. During the 15th and 16th centuries, equestrian races lost their military value and were transformed into real public shows. The Oristano joust also falls within the scope of ring races offered to the public by sovereigns, feudal lords or trade corporations on the occasion of special festivities.

There are no medieval documents that report news about the Sartiglia, however the visits of the judges of Arborea to the lords of the Italian municipalities of the 13th and 14th centuries as well as the stays in the Iberian peninsula, were very frequent and this leads to think that the sovereigns of Arborea knew the military training games and that also in Oristano the nobles tried their hand at horse racing with sword and lance. Over the centuries the practice of the Sartiglia remained alive first as a manifestation of the noble classes, then of the bourgeoisie, finally involving previously excluded social strata, thus becoming an expression of life, customs and popular culture.

During the centuries of Spanish domination we have evidence of equestrian jousts in the Royal Cities of Oristano, Cagliari, Sassari and Iglesias, organized to celebrate important events such as the ascension to the throne of a new sovereign, royal weddings or important festivities of the liturgical calendar.

The oldest evidence of the Oristano race is preserved in a council register dated 1547-48, found in the Historical Archive of the Municipality of Oristano. The document records the payment made by the Royal City to Nicolao Pinna for the supply of a black cloth used on the occasion of a Sortilla. The race was organized in honor of Emperor Charles V, presumably in 1546.

Carnival of Tempio Pausania

[edit]
Carnival of Tempio Pausania

The Carnival of Tempio Pausania (in Sardinian Carrasciali Timpiesu) is a folkloristic event that takes place during the carnival in Tempio Pausania, a town in the north of Sardinia. It is the most important allegorical Carnival of the island. On the occasion of the 2018 edition, the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism placed the Carrasciali Timpiesu in sixth place for beauty in Italy.[45]

The event, which annually attracts tens of thousands of participants and spectators, has consisted since the 1960s of evocative allegorical parades that pass through the historic center, whose floats mainly represent themes among which political and social satire prevails, crowned by the long and fascinating tradition that drives the main allegorical Carnival of Sardinia. The references to masks, traditions and typical dances dating back to the 18th century stand out. During the "six days" of the Carrasciali Timpiesu, which begins every Fat Thursday of the year and ends on Fat Tuesday, a series of daily and night-time events follow one another, among which the four main parades prevail: the initial parade on Thursday, two intermediate parades on Sunday and Monday (the latter dedicated to children) and the closing parade on Tuesday, which ends with the trial and burning in the square of "His Majesty King George", a float that represents the sovereign of the Tempio Carnival. The staging of numerous masked balls and engaging dances in the city, in conjunction with the parades, makes the Carrasciali Timpiesu unique in its kind, which every year attracts participants and spectators from all over the island.

The Tempio Carnival has ancient origins. In ancient times, from the 17th to the 19th century, it represented a great event that crowned the period in which the workers of the land could rest: the two months that go from the Epiphany (in Sardinian Li Tre Irrè) to the Saturday of the week that follows Fat Thursday (in Sardinian Carrascialoni, the day of the preparation of the traditional pentolaccia), rich in dancing, singing and feasting.

Ambrosian carnival

[edit]
Ambrosian carnival in Milan

The Ambrosian Rite (Italian: rito ambrosiano)[46] is a Latin liturgical rite of the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church (specifically The Divine Liturgy of Saint Ambrose). The rite is named after Saint Ambrose, a bishop of Milan in the fourth century. It is used by around five million Catholics in the greater part of the Archdiocese of Milan (excluding Monza, Treviglio and Trezzo sull'Adda), in some parishes of the Diocese of Como, Bergamo, Novara, Lodi, in the Diocese of Lugano, Canton of Ticino, Switzerland, less prominently in some Western Rite orthodox parishes and on special occasions of other jurisdictions.[47] In the most part of the Archdiocese of Milan, the Carnival lasts four more days, ending on the Saturday after Ash Wednesday, because of the Ambrosian Rite.[48]

Dates of observance

[edit]
  • 2024 - February 11[49]
  • 2025 - March 2[50]
  • 2026 - February 15[51]
  • 2027 - February 7[52]
  • 2028 - February 27[53]
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Alessandro Bressanello, Il carnivale in età moderna: 30 agni di carnivale a Venezia 1980-2010 (in Italian), Studio LT2, 2010; Fulvio Roiter, Carnaval de Venise, Lausanne, Payot , 1981.
  2. ^ Adams, William Lee (4 March 2014). "What's with those mysterious masks? The dark drama of Venice Carnival". CNN.
  3. ^ Danilo Reato, Storia del carnivale di Venezia (in Italian), Venezia, Assessorato alla Cultura della Provincia di Venezia, 1988.
  4. ^ Gilles Bertrand, Histoire du carnaval de Venise, XIe-XXIe siècle (in French), Paris, Pigmalion, 2013, p. 37-94.
  5. ^ Stefania Bertelli, Il Carnivale di Venezia nel Settecento (in Italian), Roma, Jouvence, 1992.
  6. ^ James H. Johnson, Venice incognito: masks in the Serene Republic, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011; Gilles Bertrand, Histoire du carnaval de Venise, XIe-XXIe siècle (in French), Paris, Pigmalion, p. 95-235.
  7. ^ Gilles Bertrand, Histoire du carnaval de Venise, XIe-XXIe siècle, Paris, Pigmalion, 2013, p. 237-310.
  8. ^ Morgans, Katie (7 February 2024). "Why You Need To See The "Carnival of Viareggio" Float Parade". The Italy Edit. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  9. ^ Kreider, Laura (13 February 2020). "Carnival celebrations in Italy". United States Army. Retrieved 11 June 2024. This carnival, created in 1873, is still characterized by giant allegorical papier-mâché floats, the biggest ones weighing about 40 tons and reaching 14 meters in length.
  10. ^ a b "Timeline: the moments not to forget". viareggio.ilcarnevale.com. Retrieved February 10, 2025.
  11. ^ Pagani, Maria Pia (5 March 2017). "The Gigantic Float Parades for the Carnival of Viareggio". The Theatre Times. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  12. ^ Terracino, Anna (26 January 2018). "Carnival celebrations in Italy". United States Army. Retrieved 11 June 2024. The first float to win the parade in 1883 was named I Quattro Mori (The Four Moors), representing the homonymous Livorno statue.
  13. ^ "Viareggio Carnival Citadel". viareggio.ilcarnevale.com. 22 January 2024. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
  14. ^ "The Carnival of Ivrea - History". Storico Carenevale di Ivrea. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
  15. ^ a b "Italy's Biggest Battle of the Oranges". Der Spiegel. 2008-06-08. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-15.
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  18. ^ Bredt, H.; et al. (2005). Italië. ANWB Media Boeken. p. 239. ISBN 978-90-18-01951-8.
  19. ^ Kiefer, Peter (2007-02-19). "In Italian town, civics lesson from annual orange battles". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
  20. ^ Simonis, Damien; et al. (2006). Italy. Lonely Planet. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-74104-303-7.
  21. ^ a b "Carnevale 2017 in Italia: eventi e feste più belle a febbraio, da Venezia a Milano". Investireoggi (in Italian). February 5, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017 – via translate.google.com.
  22. ^ a b c d "Carnevale di Satriano: qui gli alberi sanno passeggiare". TGCOM24 (in Italian). February 22, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017 – via translate.google.com.
  23. ^ a b "The Rumita and the walking forest". Italia. February 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  24. ^ a b c "Michelangelo Frammartino: Alberi". Museum of Modern Art. 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  25. ^ a b "Symbols of the past and of the present in the Carnival of Satriano". Italian Ways. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  26. ^ Rocco Perrone (November 5, 2013). "Walking forest. Be a tree-man for one day". Al Parco Lucano. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  27. ^ a b "Satriano di Lucania: ritorna la Foresta che cammina". Il Mattino di Foggia (in Italian). February 26, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  28. ^ a b Rocco Perrone (September 19, 2016). "Carnevale di Satriano. Il Rumita e la Foresta che cammina". Al Parco Lucano (in Italian). Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  29. ^ "Rai 1, 'La Vita in Diretta' sbarca nel Melandro: oggi da Satriano di Lucania per il Carnevale". Melandro News (in Italian). February 24, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017 – via translate.google.com.
  30. ^ Choat, Isabel (23 January 2017). "10 of Europe's best alternative carnivals". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 March 2025.
  31. ^ "Programma 2025". Carnevale di Putignano 2025 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  32. ^ "Fondazione". Carnevale di Putignano 2025 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  33. ^ "Propaggini". Carnevale di Putignano 2025 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  34. ^ "Storia". Carnevale di Putignano 2025 (in Italian). Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  35. ^ "Ditzionàriu in Línia". Archived from the original on 28 February 2021.
  36. ^ a b "Carnevale Luvulesu Su battileddu". 2 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11 – via YouTube.
  37. ^ ""Sa Filonzana", personaggio femminile del carnevale in Sardegna". 4 February 2014. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11 – via YouTube.
  38. ^ "MAMUTHONES E ISSOHADORES". Archived from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  39. ^ "Cultural Association "Boes and Merdules" Ottana - Italy -". Cultural Association "Boes and Merdules" Ottana - Italy. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  40. ^ "Maschere della Sardegna - Elenco delle maschere tipiche sarde | Maschere Sarde". mascheresarde.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  41. ^ "Il Carnevale Tradizionale Sardo e le sue Maschere 2011". 28 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11 – via YouTube.
  42. ^ Tuttologi, I. (10 May 2008). "Tradizioni popolari della Sardegna: Attittidu". Archived from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
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  44. ^ "Carrasciali Timpiesu - Carnevale Tempiese  - 2019". carnevaletempiese.it. Archived from the original on 17 January 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
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  46. ^ "Rito ambrosiano". Chiesa di Milano (in Italian). 2023-06-23. Retrieved 2024-04-10.
  47. ^ "Metropolitan of Piraeus celebrates ancient Liturgy of St. Ambrose of Milan". OrthoChristian.Com. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  48. ^ "Ambrosian Carnival 2023: dates and programme". Italia.it. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
  49. ^ "Festività 2024". www.calendario12.it. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  50. ^ "Festività 2025". www.calendario12.it. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  51. ^ "Festività 2026". www.calendario12.it. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  52. ^ "Festività 2027". www.calendario12.it. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  53. ^ "Festività 2028". www.calendario12.it. Retrieved January 17, 2024.

Bibliography

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