Circassians

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Donner60 (talk | contribs) at 04:47, 2 December 2016 (Reverted edits by 101.188.3.88 (talk): Introduces factual errors (HG) (3.1.22)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

See also: Chorni Klobuky

Circassians
Адыгэ Adyge
Circassian children
Circassian children in traditional costume holding the Circassian flag
Regions with significant populations
 TurkeyEstimated 1,000,000[1] – 2,000,000[2][3] – 3,000,000[4][5] – 5,000,000[2][6] to 7,000,000[7]
 Russia720,000 (2010 Census)[8]
 Jordan65,000[10] – 180,000
 Syria80,000[10][11][12] – 120,000[13]
 Germany40,000[10][14]
 Iraq34,000
 United States9,000[10] – 25,000
 Saudi Arabia23,000
 Egypt12,000
 Israel4,000[15][16] – 5,000[17]
 Serbia2,800
 Iran?
 Uzbekistan1,600
 Ukraine1,100
 Bulgaria600 (1994 Census)[18]
 Netherlands500[19]
Languages
Circassian
(West Adyghe, Kabardian Adyghe, extinct Ubykh Adyghe dialects), also Turkish, Russian, English, Arabic, Hebrew, German, Persian
Religion
Predominantly Muslim
Minority Habze, Orthodox Christian and Catholic as well as Abkhazo-Circassian neopaganism
Related ethnic groups
Abazgi (Abkhaz, Abazin)
Circassian Flag

The Circassians (Circassian: Адыгэхэр, Adygekher) are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group[20] native to Circassia, many of whom were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century, especially after the Russian–Circassian War in 1864. In its narrowest sense, the term "Circassian" includes the twelve Adyghe (Circassian: Адыгэ, Adyge) tribes (three democratic and nine aristocratic), i.e. Abzakh, Besleney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, Kabardian, Mamkhegh, Natukhai, Shapsug, Temirgoy, Ubykh, Yegeruqwai, and Zhaney,[21] each one representing a star on the green-and-gold Circassian flag. However, due to Soviet administrative divisions, Circassians were also designated as the following: Adygeans (Adyghe in Adygea), Cherkessians (Adyghe in Karachay-Cherkessia), Kabardians (Adyghe in Kabardino-Balkaria), Shapsugians (Adyghe in Krasnodar Krai) although all the four are essentially the same people residing in different political units.

Most Circassians are Sunni Muslim.[22] The Circassians mainly speak the Circassian language, a Northwest Caucasian language with three main dialects and numerous sub-dialects. Many Circassians also speak Turkish, Russian, English, Arabic, and Hebrew, having been exiled by Russia to lands of the Ottoman Empire, where the majority of them today live.[23] About 800,000 Circassians remain in historical Circassia (modern-day titular Circassian republics of Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia as well as the southern half of Krasnodar Krai and the southwestern part of Stavropol Krai), and others live in the Russian Federation outside these republics and krais. The 2010 Russian Census recorded 718,727 Circassians, of whom 516,826 are Kabardian, 124,835 are Adyghe proper, 73,184 are Cherkess, and 3,882 Shapsug.[8]

The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization estimated in the early 1990s that there are as many as 3.7 million "ethnic Circassian" diaspora (in over 50 countries),[24] outside the titular Circassian republics (meaning that only one in seven "ethnic Circassians" live in the homeland), and that, of these 3.7 million, more than 2 million live in Turkey,[24] 300,000 in the Levant (mostly modern-day Jordan and Syria) and Mesopotamia, and 50,000 in Western Europe and the United States.

Ethnonyms

The Circassians refer to themselves as Adyghe (also transliterated as Adyga, Adyge, Adygei, Adyghe, Attéghéi). The name is believed to derive from atté "height" to signify a mountaineer or a highlander, and ghéi "sea", signifying "a people dwelling and inhabiting a mountainous country near the sea coast", or "between two seas".[25][26]

The exonym Circassians (ser-KASS-ee-uhnz) is occasionally applied to Adyghe and Abaza from the North Caucasus.[27] The name Circassian represents a Latinisation of Siraces, the Greek name for the region, called Shirkess by Khazars & later Cherkess, the Turkic name for the Adyghe, and originated in the 15th century with medieval Genoese merchants and travellers to Circassia.[27][28]

The Turkic peoples[29] and Russians call the Adyghe Cherkess.[30] Folk etymology usually explains the name Cherkess as "warrior cutter" or "soldier cutter", from the Turkish words çeri (soldier) and kesmek (to cut).[citation needed]

Despite a common self-designation and a common Russian name,[31] Soviet authorities applied four designations to Circassians:[citation needed]

  • Kabardian, Circassians of Kabardino-Balkaria (Circassians speaking the Kabardian language[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEВсероссийская_перепись_2010,_Итоги[httpwwwgksrufree_docnew_siteperepis2010crocDocumentsVol4pub-04-01pdf_Т._4._—_Табл._1._Национальный_состав_населения]_(скачать:'"`UNIQ--ref-00000033-QINU`"')-33|[33]]]), one of two indigenous peoples of the republic.
  • Cherkess (Adyghe: Шэрджэс Šărdžăs), Circassians of Karachay-Cherkessia (Circassians speaking the Cherkess, i.e. Circassian, language[[#cite_note-FOOTNOTEВсероссийская_перепись_2010,_Итоги[httpwwwgksrufree_docnew_siteperepis2010crocDocumentsVol4pub-04-01pdf_Т._4._—_Табл._1._Национальный_состав_населения]_(скачать:'"`UNIQ--ref-00000035-QINU`"')-34|[34]]]), one of two indigenous peoples of the republic who are mostly Besleney Kabardians. The name "Cherkess" is the Russian form of "Circassian" and was used for all Circassians before Soviet times.
  • Adyghe, the indigenous population of the Kuban including Adygea and Krasnodar Krai.[35]
  • Shapsug, the indigenous historical inhabitants of Shapsugia. They live in the Tuapse District and the Lazarevsky City District (formerly the Shapsugsky National District) of Sochi, both in Krasnodar Krai and in Adygea.

History

Origins

Tuman bay II (reigned 1516–1517) the last Mamluk sultan of Adyghe origins.

Genetically, the Adyghe have shared ancestry partially with neighboring peoples of the Caucasus, with some influence from the other regions.[36] The Circassian language, also known as the Cherkess language, including West Adyghe, Kabardian Adyghe, and Ubykh, is a member of the ancient Northwest Caucasian language family. Archaeological findings, mainly of dolmens in Northwest Caucasus region, indicate a megalithic culture in North West caucauses.[37] Around the beginning of the 4th Millennium BCE, the North West Caucasus region and western Steppes became influenced by the Maykop culture.

An Adyghe kingdom was founded in about 400 BCE.[37]

Medieval period

As a result of Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE.[38][39] During that period the Circassians (referred to at the time as Kassogs) began to accept Christianity as a national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their indigenous religious beliefs.

From around 400 CE, wave after wave of invaders began to invade the lands of the Adyghe, who were also known as the Kasogi (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conqered first by the Bulgars (who originated on the Central Asian steppes). Outsiders sometimes confused the Adyghe with the similarly-named Utigurs (a branch of the Bulgars), and both peoples were sometimes conflated under misnomers such as "Utige". The Bulgar state, with its capital at Phanagoria, reached the apex of its geopolitical sway in 632–668, as Old Great Bulgaria (which also occupied present-day southern Ukraine).

Under pressure from the Khazars, Great Bulgaria declined quickly and collapsed, to be succeeded[when?] by the Khazar Khaganate.

The Adyghe, following the dissolution of the Khazar state, were integrated (around the end of the 1st millennium CE) by the Kingdom of Alania.

Between the 10th and 13th centuries Georgia had influence on the Adyghe, adopting Christianity.

In the 17th century, under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire, some Circassians started to adopt Islam. However, there were instances of Circassians adopting Islam even in the late 15th century, and such groups subsequently became Mamluks and rose through the ranks to become sultans in Egypt during the Mamluk dynasty (1250–1517). Although the make-up of the Burji Mamluk dynasty were mostly Adyghe (including Kabardian), there were also Abkhaz, Abaza, and Georgian people who were recruited by the Arab sultans to serve their kingdoms as a military force. However, former Bahri Mamluk dynasty was composed mainly of Cumans and Kipchaks.[40] During the 13th century the Mamluks seized power in Cairo, and as a result[citation needed] the Mamluk kingdom became the most influential kingdom in the Muslim world. The majority of the leaders of the Mamluk kingdom were of Adyghe origin.[41] Even after the Ottoman Turks conquered Egypt in 1517, the Adyghes continued to rule in Egypt until the 18th century.[citation needed]

With the rise of Muhammad Ali Pasha (who ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848), most senior Mamluks were killed[by whom?] and the remaining Mamluks fled to Sudan.

As of 2016 several thousand Adyghe reside in Egypt; in addition to the descendants of Burji Mamluks of Adyghe origin, there are many who descend from royal Circassian consorts or Ottoman pashas of Circassian origin as well as Circassian muhajirs of the 19th century. Until the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt in the 1950s, the Adyghe formed an élite group in the country. Besides the Adyghe, the Egyptian Abaza family (of Abazin origin) still holds to this day an élite place in Egyptian society, and constitutes Egypt's largest family.

Large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam from Christianity in the 17th century.[42]

In Safavid and Qajar Persia, large numbers of Circassians were imported and deported to Persia, where many enjoyed prestige in the harems and in the élite armies (the so-called ghulams), while many others were settled and deployed as craftsmen, labourers, farmers and regular soldiers. Many members of the Safavid nobility and élite had Circassian ancestry and Circassian dignitaries, such as the kings Abbas II and Suleiman I. While traces of Circassian settlements in Iran have lasted into the 20th century, many of the once large Circassian minority became assimilated into the local population.[43] However, significant communities of Circassians continue to live in particular cities in Iran,[44] like Tabriz and Tehran, and in the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran.[45][46]

It has been estimated[by whom?] that some 200,000 slaves—mainly Circassians—were imported into the Ottoman Empire between 1800 and 1909.[47] The Circassian beauties were desirable as concubines.[48]

Russian Invasion of Circassia

Main article: Ethnic cleansing of Circassians
See also: Circassian nationalism
Map of the expulsion of Circassians to the Ottoman Empire

Circassia was a small independent nation on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. For no reason other than ethnic hatred, over the course of hundreds of raids the Russians drove the Circassians from their homeland and deported them to the Ottoman Empire. At least 600,000 people lost their lives to massacre, starvation, and the elements while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homeland. By 1864, three-fourths of the population was annihilated, and the Circassians had become one of the first stateless peoples in modern history.

— Walter Richmond, The Circassian Genocide [49]

Between the late 18th and early-to-mid-19th centuries, the Adyghe people lost their independence as they were slowly invaded by Russia in a series of wars and campaigns. During this period, the Adyghe plight achieved a certain celebrity status in the West; but pledges of assistance were never fulfilled. After the Crimean War, Russia turned its attention to the Caucasus in earnest. Following major territorial losses for Persia in the Caucasus in the aftermath of the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813) and the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), forcing them to cede what comprises now Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and Azerbaijan to Imperial Russia,[50] the latter found itself now able to focus most of its army on subdueing the rebelling natives of the North Caucasus, starting with the peoples of Chechnya and Dagestan. In 1859, the Russians had finished defeating Imam Shamil in the eastern Caucasus, and turned their attention westward. Eventually, the long lasting Russian–Circassian War ended with the defeat of the Adyghe forces. Some Adyghe leaders signed loyalty oaths on 2 June 1864 (21 May, O.S.).

The Conquest of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire in the 19th century during the Russian-Circassian War, led to the destruction and killing of many Adyghe—towards the end of the conflict, the Russian General Yevdokimov was tasked with driving the remaining Circassian inhabitants out of the region, primarily into the Ottoman Empire. This policy was enforced by mobile columns of Russian riflemen and Cossack cavalry.[51][52][53] "In a series of sweeping military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864... the northwest Caucasus and the Black Sea coast were virtually emptied of Muslim villagers. Columns of the displaced were marched either to the Kuban [River] plains or toward the coast for transport to the Ottoman Empire... One after another, entire Circassian tribal groups were dispersed, resettled, or killed en masse"[53] This expulsion, along with the actions of the Russian military in acquiring Circassian land,[54] has given rise to a movement among descendants of the expelled ethnicities for international recognition that genocide was perpetrated.[55] In 1840, Karl Friedrich Neumann estimated the Circassian casualties to be around one and a half million.[56] Some sources state that hundreds of thousands of others died during the exodus.[57] Several historians use the phrase "Circassian massacres"[58] for the consequences of Russian actions in the region.[59]

On 20 May 2011, the Georgian parliament voted in a 95 to 0 declaration that Russia had committed genocide when it engaged in massacres against Circassians in the 19th century.[60]

Like other ethnic minorities under Russian rule, the Adyghe who remained in the Russian Empire borders were subjected to policies of mass resettlement.

The Ottoman Empire, which ruled large parts of the area south of Russia, considered the Adyghe warriors to be courageous and well-experienced. It encouraged them to settle in various near-border settlements of the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen the empire's borders.

Post-exile period

The Adyghes who were settled by the Ottomans in various near-border settlements across the empire, ended up living across many territories in the Middle East. At the time these belonged to the Ottoman Empire and are now located in the following countries:

  • Turkey, which has the largest Adyghe population in the world. The Adyghe settled in three main regions in Turkey: Samsun, along the shores of the Black Sea; the region near the city of Ankara, the region near the city of Kayseri, and in the western part of the country near the region of Istanbul. This latter region experienced a severe earthquake in 1999. Many Adyghe played key roles in the Ottoman army and also participated in the Turkish War of Independence.
  • Syria. Most of the Adyghe who immigrated to Syria settled in the Golan Heights. Prior to the Six-Day War, the Adyghe people were the majority group in the Golan Heights region—their number at that time is estimated at 30,000. The most prominent settlement in the Golan was the town of Quneitra. The total number of Circassians in Syria is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.[61] In 2013, the Syrian Circassians said they were exploring returning to Circassia, as tensions between the Baath government and the opposition forces escalates. Circassians from different parts of Syria, such as Damascus, have moved back to the Golan Heights, believed to be safer. Some refugees have been reportedly killed by shelling. Circassians have been lobbying the Russian and Israeli governments to help evacuate refugees from Syria. Some visas were issued by Russia.[62]
  • Israel. The Adyghe initially settled in three places—in Kfar Kama, Rehaniya, and in the region of Hadera. Due to a malaria epidemic, the Adyghe settlement near Hadera was eventually abandoned. Though Sunni Muslim, Adyghe are seen as a loyal minority within Israel, who serve in the armed forces.[63][64][65]
  • Jordan. The Adyghe had a major role in the history of the Kingdom of Jordan.[66][67] They make up around 1% to 2% of the total population. Over the years, various Adyghe have served in distinguished roles in the kingdom of Jordan. An Adyghe has served as a prime minister (Sa'id al-Mufti), ministers (commonly at least one minister should represent the Circassians in each cabinet), high rank officers, etc., and due to their important role in the history of Jordan, Adyghe form the Hashemites honour guard at the royal palaces. They represented Jordan in the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo in 2010, joining other honour guards such as the Airborne Ceremonial Unit.[68][69] Jordanian Circassians have several clusterings, most notably Sweileh in Amman.
  • Iraq. The Adyghe came to Iraq in two waves: directly from Circassia, and later from the Balkans. They settled in all parts of Iraq—from north to south—but most of all in Iraq's capital Baghdad. A reported 30,000 Adyghe families live in Baghdad. Many Adyghe also settled in Kerkuk, Diyala, Fallujah, and other places. Circassians played a major role in different periods throughout Iraq's history, and made great contributions to political and military institutions in the country, to the Iraqi Army in particular. Several Iraqi prime ministers have been of Circassian descent.

Culture

See also: Circassian music and Circassian folklore

Adyghe society prior to the Russian invasion was highly stratified. While a few tribes in the mountainous regions of Adygeya were fairly egalitarian, most were broken into strict castes. The highest was the caste of the "princes", followed by a caste of lesser nobility, and then commoners, serfs, and slaves. In the decades before Russian rule, two tribes overthrew their traditional rulers and set up democratic processes, but this social experiment was cut short by the end of Adyghe independence.

Language

The Circassian dialects and sub-dialects development
The isolated Northwest Caucasian language family
Main articles: Circassian language, Adyghe language, and Kabardian language

Circassians mainly speak the Circassian language, a Northwest Caucasian language with numerous dialects, the primary ones being Adyghe (West Circassian) and Kabardian (East Adyghe). West Adyghe language is based on Temirgoy dialect, while East Adyghe language is based on Kabardian dialect. Circassians also speak Russian, Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew in large numbers, having been exiled by Russia to lands of the Ottoman Empire, where the majority of them live today, and some to neighboring Persia, to which they came primarily through mass deportations by the Safavids and Qajars or, to a lesser extent, as muhajirs in the 19th century.[70][71][72][73]

Lesser numbers of Circassians speak German and Persian.

The native language is spoken among all the Circassian communities around the world, with about 125,000 speakers who live in the Russian Federation, some of whom live in the Republic of Adygea where the Adyghe language is defined as the official language. The world's largest Adyghe-speaking community is the Circassian community in Turkey—it has about 150,000 Adyghe speakers.

The Circassians who migrated to the United States are facing an assimilation crisis.[citation needed] Each new generation of Circassians are not preserving their language. Historians predict the language will be extinct within the next 50 years in the U.S.

Religion

The mosque of Abu Darwish (Adyghe descendant), one of the oldest mosques in Amman and considered as a major landmark.

The ethnic religion of Circassians (Adyghes) was Habze—a philosophical and religious system of personal values and the relationship of an individual to others, to the world around him, and to the Higher Mind. In essence, it represents monotheism with a much-defined system of worshipping One God—the Mighty Tha (Tha, Thashxue). During the time of the settlement of Greek cities / colonies on the coast of the Black Sea there was an intermingling of cultures. Circassian mythology has noticeable aspects from Roman mythology. In return, there is evidence that Roman mythology also borrowed from Circassian legends. In the 6th century, under Byzantine influence, many Adyghes became Christian, but under the growing influence of the Ottomans, many of them became Muslims. Throughout Circassian history the ethnic religion of Circassians has interacted with Christianity and Islam.

It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the first century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew.[74] Subsequently, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 4th century[38] and the 6th century[39] under Greek Byzantine influence and later through the Georgians between the 10th century and the 13th century. During that period, Circassians began to accept Christianity as their national religion, but did not fully adopt Christianity as elements of their ancient indigenous religious beliefs still survived.

Islam reached the northeastern region of the Caucasus, principally Dagestan, as early as the 7th century, but was first introduced to the Circassians between the 16th century and in the middle of the 19th century under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and Ottoman Turks.

In the modern times, it has been reported that some Circassians practice their traditional religious faith Habzism, the adherents of which constitute 12% of the population of Karachay-Cherkessia and 3% of the population of Kabardino-Balkaria.[75][76] There have also been reports of violence against those practising the older religion. Aslan Tsipinov, an advocate of Habzism in Kabardino-Balkaria, was murdered in 2010 by Islamist radical non-Circassians who had accused him of mushrik (disbelief in Islamic monotheism) and months earlier threatened him and others they accused as idolaters and munafiqun ("hypocrites" who are said are outwardly Muslims but secretly unsympathetic to the cause of Islam) to stop "reviving" and diffusing the rituals of the original Circassian pre-Islamic faith.[77][78]

Since the late 18th and early 19th century, the majority of Circassians are predominantly Sunni Muslim and adhere to the Hanafi school of thought, or law, the largest and oldest school of Islamic law in jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. However, there are still Orthodox Christian Circassians—e.g., Mozdok Kabardians—who have been Christian since the early 3rd century to present. There are also a few Roman Catholics, who now account for just under 1% of Russia's Circassians,[79] the faith having been introduced to the area during the Middle Ages by Venetian and Genoese traders.

Adyghe Khabze

Habzist "hammer cross" symbol, representing the highest god Tha.[80]
Main article: Adyghe Habze

Adyghe Habze, Khabze, or Xabze (Adyghe: Адыгэ Хабзэ) is the native Circassian philosophy, worldview, and quasi-religion, it is the epitome of Circassian culture and tradition having deeply shaped the ethical values of the Adyghe. It is their code of honour and is based on mutual respect and above all requires responsibility, discipline and self-control. Adyghe Xabze functions as the Circassian unwritten law yet was highly regulated and adhered to in the past. The Code requires that all Circassians are taught courage, reliability and generosity. Greed, desire for possessions, wealth and ostentation are considered disgraceful ("Yemiku") by the Xabze code. In accordance with Xabze, hospitality was and is particularly pronounced among the Circassians. A guest is not only a guest of the host family, but equally a guest of the whole village and clan. Even enemies are regarded as guests if they enter the home and being hospitable to them as one would with any other guest is a sacred duty.

Circassians consider the host to be like a slave to the guest in that the host is expected to tend to the guest's every need and want. A guest must never be permitted to labour in any way, this is considered a major disgrace on the host.

Every Circassian arises when someone enters the room, providing a place for the person entering and allowing the newcomer to speak before everyone else during the conversation. In the presence of elders and women, respectful conversation and conduct are essential. Disputes are stopped in the presence of women and domestic disputes are never continued in the presence of guests. A woman can request disputing families to reconcile and they must comply with her request. A key figure in Circassian culture is the person known as the "Tkhamade" or "T'hamata" (Adyghe: Тхьэмадэ – Тхьэматэ), who is often an elder but also the person who carries the responsibility for functions like weddings or circumcision parties. This person must always comply with all the rules of Xabze in all areas of his life.

Traditional social system

Society was organized by Adyghe khabze, or Circassian custom.[81] Many of these customs had equivalents throughout the mountains. It should be noted that the seemingly disorganized Circassians resisted the Russians just as effectively as the organized theocracy of Imam Shamil. The aristocracy was called warq. Some aristocratic families held the rank of Pshi or prince and the eldest member of this family was the Pshi-tkhamade who was the tribal chief. Below the warq was the large class to tfokotl, roughly yeomen or freemen, who had various duties to the warq. They were divided into clans of some sort. Below them were three classes approximating serfs or slaves. Of course, these Circassian social terms do not exactly match their European equivalents. Since everything was a matter custom, much depended on time, place, circumstances and personality. The three 'democratic' tribes, Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abzakh, managed their affairs by assemblies called Khase or larger ones called Zafes. Decisions were made by general agreement and there was no formal mechanism to inforce decisions. The democratic tribes, who were perhaps the majority, lived mainly in the mountains where they were relatively protected from the Russians. They seem to have retained their aristocrats, but with diminished powers. In the remaining 'feudal' tribes power was theoretically in the hands of the Pshi-tkhamade, although his power could be limited by Khases or other influential families.

In addition to the vertical relations of class there were many horizontal relations between unrelated persons. There was a strong tradition of hospitality similar to the Greek xenia. Many houses would have a kunakskaya or guest room. The duty of a host extended even to abreks or outlaws. Two men might be sworn brothers or kunaks. There were brotherhoods of unrelated individuals called tleuzh who provided each other mutual support. It was common for a child to be raised by an atalyk or foster father. Criminal law was mainly concerned with reconciling the two parties. Adyghe khabze is sometimes called adat when it is contrasted to the kind of Islamic law advocated by people like Imam Shamil.

Traditional clothing

Traditional Adyghe clothing
Traditional Adyghe clothing

The Adyghe traditional clothing (Adyghe: Адыгэ Щыгъыныхэр Template:IPA-ady) refers to the historical clothing worn by the Adyghe people.

The traditional female clothing (Adyghe: Бзылъфыгъэ Шъуашэр Template:IPA-ady) was very diverse and highly decorated and mainly depends on the region, class of family, occasions, and tribes. The traditional female costume is composed of a dress (Adyghe: Джанэр Template:IPA-ady), coat (Adyghe: Сае Template:IPA-ady), shirt, pant (Adyghe: ДжэнэкӀакор Template:IPA-ady), vest (Adyghe: КӀэкӀ Template:IPA-ady), lamb leather bra (Adyghe: Шъохътан Template:IPA-ady), a variety of hats (Adyghe: ПэӀохэр Template:IPA-ady), shoes, and belts (Adyghe: Бгырыпхыхэр Template:IPA-ady). Holiday dresses are made of expensive fabrics such as silk and velvet. The traditional colors of women's clothing rarely includes blue, green or bright-colored tones, instead mostly white, red, black and brown shades are worn.

The traditional male costume (Adyghe: Адыгэ хъулъфыгъэ шъуашэр Template:IPA-ady ) includes a coat with wide sleeves, shirt, pants, a dagger, sword, and a variety of hats and shoes. Traditionally, young men in the warriors times wore coat with short sleeves—in order to feel more comfortable in combat. Different colors of clothing for males were strictly used to distinguish between different social classes, for example white is usually worn by princes, red by nobles, gray, brown, and black by peasants (blue, green and the other colors were rarely worn). A compulsory item in the traditional male costume is a dagger and a sword. The traditional Adyghean sword is called Shashka. It is a special kind of sabre; a very sharp, single-edged, single-handed, and guardless sword. Although the sword is used by most of Russian and Ukrainian Cossacks, the typically Adyghean form of the sabre is longer than the Cossack type, and in fact the word Shashka came from the Adyghe word "Sashkhwa" (Adyghe: Сашьхъуэ) which means "long knife". On the breast of the costume are long ornamental tubes or sticks, once filled with a single charge of gunpowder (called gaziri cartridges) and used to reload muskets.

Traditional cuisine

An old country house and traditional cuisine with Haliva (Хьэлжъо) and Mataz (Мэтазэ), two of the prominent traditional Adyghe snacks.

The Adyghe cuisine is rich with different dishes.[82][83] In the summer, the traditional dishes consumed by the Adyghe people are mainly dairy products and vegetable dishes. In the winter and spring the traditional dishes are mainly flour and meat dishes. An example of the latter is known as ficcin.

Circassian cheese is considered one of the more famous types of cheeses in the North Caucasus.

A popular traditional dish is chicken or turkey with sauce, seasoned with crushed garlic and red pepper. Mutton and beef are served boiled, usually with a seasoning of sour milk with crushed garlic and salt.

Variants of pasta are found. A type of ravioli may be encountered, which is filled with potato or beef.

On holidays the Adyghe people traditionally make Haliva (Adyghe: хьэлжъо) (fried triangular pastries with mainly Circassian cheese or potato), from toasted millet or wheat flour in syrup, baked cakes and pies. In the Levant there is a famous Circassian dish which is called Tajen Alsharkaseiah.[84]

Traditional crafts

The Adyghes have been famous for making carpets (Adyghe: пӏуаблэхэр Template:IPA-ady) or mats worldwide for thousands of years.[citation needed]

Making carpets was very hard work in which collecting raw materials is restricted to a specific period within the year. The raw materials were dried, and based on the intended colours, different methods of drying were applied. For example, when dried in the shade, its[clarification needed] colour changed to a beautiful light gold colour. If it were dried in direct sun light then it would have a silver colour, and if they wanted to have a dark colour for the carpets, the raw materials were put in a pool of water and covered by poplar leaves (Adyghe: екӏэпцӏэ Template:IPA-ady).

The carpets were adorned with images of birds, beloved animals (horses), and plants, and the image of the Sun was widely used.

The carpets were used for different reasons due to their characteristic resistance to humidity and cold, and in retaining heat. Also, there was a tradition in Circassian homes to have two carpets hanging in the guest room, one used to hang over rifles (Adyghe: шхончымрэ Template:IPA-ady) and pistols (Adyghe: къэлаеымрэ), and the other used to hang over musical instruments.

The carpets were used to pray upon, and it was necessary for every Circassian girl to make three carpets before marriage; a big carpet, a small carpet, and the last for praying as a prayer rug. These carpets would give the grooms an impression as to the success of their brides in their homes after marriage.[85]

Circassian tribes

From the late Middle Ages, a number of territorial- and political-based Circassian tribes or ethnic entities began to take shape. Their culture, traditions, and way of life differed little.

At the end of the Caucasian War with most Circassians were expelled to the Ottoman Empire, many of the tribes were destroyed or evicted from their historical homeland.

Most Adyghe living in Circassia are Bzhedug, Kabardian, and Temirgoy, while the majority in diaspora are Kabardian, Abzakh, and Shapsug. West Adyghe language is based on Temirgoy dialect, while East Adyghe language is based on Kabardian dialect.

The twelve stars on the Circassian flag symbolize the individual tribes of the Circassians; the nine stars within the arc symbolize the nine aristocratic tribes of Adygea, and the three horizontal stars symbolize the three democratic tribes. The twelve tribes are the Abdzakh, Besleney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, Kabardian, Mamkhegh, Natukhai, Shapsug, Temirgoy, Ubykh, Yegeruqwai, and Zhaney.[86]

Twelve Circassian (Adyghe) tribes (sub-ethnic groups)
Geographical designation Main dialect Tribe[87][88] Circassian name Notes
Adygeans (Adyghe of Adygea) West Adyghe Abzakh (Abdzakh or Abadzekh[87]) Абдзах Template:IPA-ady Second largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey and the world, largest in Jordan, sixth largest in Russia
Bzhedug (Bzhedugh or Bzhedukh[87]) Бжъэдыгъу Template:IPA-ady Third largest Adyghe tribe in Russia, lesser in other countries
Hatuqwai (Hatukay or Khatukai[87]) Хьэтыкъуай Template:IPA-ady Completely expelled from the Caucasus, found almost exclusively in Turkey, US, Jordan, and Israel
Mamkhegh Мэмхэгъ, Мамхыгъ Template:IPA-ady a large clan, but a small tribe
Natukhai (Notkuadj[87]) Натыхъуай Template:IPA-ady, Наткъуадж Template:IPA-ady Completely expelled from the Caucasus after the Caucasian War
Temirgoy (Chemgui or Kemgui[87]) КIэмгуй Template:IPA-ady Second largest Adyghe tribe in Russia, lesser in other countries
Yegeruqwai (Yegerukay) Еджэрыкъуай Template:IPA-ady Completely expelled from the Caucasus
Zhaney (Jane or Zhan[87]) Жанэ Template:IPA-ady Not found after the Caucasian War on a tribal basis
Shapsugians (Adyghe of Krasnodar Krai) Shapsug (Shapsugh) Шэпсыгъ, Шапсыгъ Template:IPA-ady Third largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey and the world, largest in Israel
Ubykhians (Adyghe of Krasnodar Krai) Ubykh Adyghe (extinct) and Hakuchi Adyghe Ubykh Убых Template:IPA-ady, Пэху Completely expelled from the Caucasus, found almost exclusively in Turkey where most speak East Adyghe, and some West Adyghe (often Hakuchi sub-dialect) as well as Abaza
Kabardians (Adyghe of Kabardino-Balkaria) Kabardian Adyghe[89] Kabardians (Kabardinian, Kabardin, Kabarday, Kebertei, or Adyghe of Kabarda) Къэбэрдэй Template:IPA-ady, Къэбэртай Template:IPA-ady Largest Adyghe tribe in Turkey (over 2 millions), Russia (over 500,000), and the world (3–4 million), second or third largest in Jordan and Israel
Cherkessians (Cherkess or Adyghe of Karachay-Cherkessia) Besleney[89] (Beslenei[87]) Беслъэней Template:IPA-ady

Other Adyghe groups

Small tribes or large clans that are included in one of the twelve Adyghe tribes:

Name Circassian name Notes
Adele (Khatko) [ru] (Khetuk or Adali[87]) ХьэтIукъу Not found after the Caucasian War on a tribal basis, included in the Abzakh and Hatuqwai tribes
Ademey (Adamei or Adamiy) Адэмый Template:IPA-ady Included in the Kabardian tribe
Guaye (Goaye) Гъоайе Not found after the Caucasian War
Shegak [ru] (Khegaik[87]) Хэгъуайкъу Not found after the Caucasian War
Chebsin (Čöbein[87]) ЦIопсынэ Not found after the Caucasian War
Makhosh (Mequash) (Mokhosh[87]) Махошъ Template:IPA-ady A large clan, but not enough to be a separate tribe
Circassians is located in Caucasus mountains
Adygeans
Adygeans
Cherkessians
Cherkessians
Kabardians
Kabardians
Shapsugians
Shapsugians
Abazinians
Abazinians
Abkhazians
Abkhazians
Ossetians
Ossetians
Chechens
Chechens
Dagestanians
Dagestanians
Azerbaijanis
Azerbaijanis
Armenians
Armenians
class=notpageimage|
Peoples of the Caucasus

The Circassian tribes can be grouped and compared in various ways. The term "Circassian" sometimes includes the Abkhaz and Abaza people since they are originally related to the Adyghe. Linguists divide the Northwest Caucasian languages into Adyghe (including Kabardian), Ubykh (originally an Adyghe dialect), and Abazgi (Abkhaz-Abaza). The three language groups are mutually unintelligible. The Ubykhs lived on the Black Sea coast north of Abkhazia. The Abkhazians lived on the coast between the Ubyks and the Georgians, were organized as the Principality of Abkhazia and were involved with the Georgians to some degree. The Abaza, their relatives, lived north of the mountains and were involved with Circassia proper. They extended from the mountain crest northeast onto the steppe and separated the Kabardians from the rest. Sadz were either northern Abkhazian or eastern Abaza, depending on the source. The Kabardians occupied about a third of the north Caucasus piedmont from east of Circassia proper eastward to the Chechen country. To their north were the Nogai nomads and to the south, deeper in the mountains, were from west to east, the Karachays, Balkars, Ossetes, Ingushes, and Chechens. The Kabardians were fairly advanced, interacted with the Russians from the sixteenth century and were much reduced by plague in the early nineteenth century.

class=notpageimage|
Approximate location of Circassian tribes, Tsutsiev's Atlas

As for the Circassians proper, apparently called Kiakhs, some writers speak of twelve tribes and some do not.

  • The narrow Black Sea coast was occupied, from north to south by the Natukhai, Shapsug, Ubykh, and the Abkhaz (Sadz sub-branch). The main part of the Natukhai and Shapsug tribes lived north of the mountains. The Natukhai were enriched by trade since their coast was not backed by high mountains and opened onto the steppe.
  • The north slope was inhabited, from north to south, by the Natukhai, Shapsug, Abzakh, and Abaza. They seem to have been the most populous tribes after the Kabardians and their inland location gave then some protection from Nogai and Cossack raiding.
  • In the far west were three small tribes that were absorbed into the Natukhai and disappeared. These were the Adele ru:Адале on the Taman peninsula and the Shegak and Chebsin (ru:Хегайки and ru:Чебсин) near Anapa.
  • Along the Kuban were the Natukhai, Zhaney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, and Temirgoy.
  • On the east, between the Laba and Belaya, from north to south, were the Temirgoy, Yegeruqwai (ru:Егерукаевцы), Makhosh (ru:Махошевцы), Besleney and Abaza. The Besleney were a branch of the Kabardians. The Tapanta (ru:Тапанта), a branch of the Abaza, lived between the Besleney and Kabardian tribes on the upper Kuban. Along the Belaya River were the Temirgoy, the ill-documented Ademey (ru:Адамийцы) and then the Mamkhegh near the modern Maykop.
  • The Guaye (ru:Гуайе) are poorly documented. The Tchelugay lived west of the Makhosh. The Hakuch lived on the coast south of the Natukhai. Other groups are mentioned without much documentation. There are reports of tribes migrating from one place to another, again without much documentation. Some sketch maps show a group of Karachays on the upper Laba without any explanation.

The tribes along the Kuban and Laba rivers were exposed to Nogai and Cossack raiding while those in the interior has some protection. The three "democratic" tribes were the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abzakh. They managed their affairs by assemblies while the other tribes were controlled by "princes" or Pshi. Tribes with remnants in the Caucasus are: Kabardians (the largest group), the Temirgoy and Bzhedug in Adygea, and the Shapsug near Tuapse and elsewhere. There are also a few Besleney and Natukhai villages, and an Abzakh village.

Circassian diaspora

Main article: Circassian diaspora
Adyghe horsemanship in Transjordan, April 1921
Circassians immigration to Jordan formed a new part of Jordan's ethnic fabric. The guards responsible for the protection of the King of Jordan are Circassians. This picture shows a Circassian guard in Amman 1940 during a celebration commemorating the Great Arab Revolt.

Adyghe have lived outside the Caucasus region since the Middle Ages. They were particularly well represented in the Mamluks of Turkey and Egypt. In fact, the Burji dynasty which ruled Egypt from 1382 to 1517 was founded by Adyghe Mamluks.

Starting from the 16th and 17th century up to the course of the 19th century, a massive Circassian diaspora was created in Iran and Turkey due to deportation, importation, resettlement, and to a much lesser extent voluntary migration.

Much of Adyghe culture was disrupted after the conquest of their homeland by Russia in 1864. The Circassian people were subjected to ethnic cleansing and mass exile mainly to the Ottoman Empire, and to a lesser extent Qajar Iran and the Balkans. This increased the number of Circassians in the region and even created several entirely new Circassian communities in the states that got created after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.

The total number of Circassians worldwide is estimated at 8 million.

Western Asia

Around half of all Circassians live in Turkey, mainly in the provinces of Samsun and Ordu (in Northern Turkey), Kahramanmaraş (in Southern Turkey), Kayseri (in Central Turkey), Bandırma, and Düzce (in Northwest Turkey).

Significant communities live in Jordan,[90] Syria (see Circassians in Syria),[90] and smaller communities live in Israel (in the villages of Kfar Kama and Rehaniya—see Circassians in Israel)[90]

Iran once had a very large community, but the vast amount were assimilated in the population in the course of centuries,[91][92][93] however significant numbers remain present.[44] Notable places of traditional Circassian settlement in Iran include Gilan Province, Fars Province,[94] Isfahan, and Tehran (due to contemporary migration). Circassians in Iran are the nations' second largest Caucasus-derived ethnic group after the Georgians.[44]

Circassians are also present in Iraq. Baghdad, Sulaymaniyah, and Diyala comprise the country's main cities with Circassians,[95] though lesser numbers are spread in other regions and cities as well.

Egypt and Libya

Circassians commemorate the banishment of the Circassians from Russia in Taksim, İstanbul

Most Circassian communities in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia were assimilated into the local population.[96] A prominent example is Egypt's Abaza family, a large Abazin clan.

Europe

There are Circassians in Germany and a small number in the Netherlands.

Out of 1,010 Circassians living in Ukraine (473 Kabardian Adyghe (Kabardin), 338 Adygean Adyghe (Adyghe proper), and 199 Cherkessian Adyghe (Cherkess)—after the existing Soviet division of Circassians into three groups), only 181 (17.9%) declared fluency in the native language; 96 (9.5%) declared Ukrainian as native language and 697 (69%) marked "other language" as their native and most likely the latter is Russian, though none openly declared it.[97] The major Adyghe community in Ukraine is in Odessa.

There is a small community of Circassians in Serbia and Macedonia. A number of Adyghe also settled in Bulgaria in 1864–1865 but most fled after it became separate from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. The small community that settled in Kosovo (the Kosovo Adyghes) repatriated to the Republic of Adygea in 1998.

North America

Numerous Circassians have also immigrated to the United States and settled in Upstate New York, California, and New Jersey. There is also a small Circassian community in Canada.

Sochi Olympics controversy

Main article: Concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics

The 2014 Winter Olympics facilities in Sochi (once the Circassian capital)[98] were built in areas that are claimed to contain mass graves of Circassians who were killed during genocide by Russia in military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864.[99]

Adyghe organizations in Russia and the Adyghe diaspora around the world have requested that the construction at the site would stop and that the Olympic games would not be held at the site of the Adyghe genocide to prevent the desecration of the Adyghe graves.[citation needed] According to Iyad Youghar, who heads the lobby group International Circassian Council: "We want the athletes to know that if they compete here they will be skiing on the bones of our relatives."[98] The year 2014 also marked the 150th anniversary of the Circassian Genocide which angered the Circassians around the world. Many protests were held all over the world to stop the Sochi Olympics but were not successful.

Gallery

  • A group of Adyghe children in traditional clothes.
    A group of Adyghe children in traditional clothes.
  • An Ottoman Circassian noblewoman in the 19th century.
    An Ottoman Circassian noblewoman in the 19th century.
  • A Circassian sipahi in the Ottoman Army.
    A Circassian sipahi in the Ottoman Army.
  • An Adyghe man from Kabardian tribe.
    An Adyghe man from Kabardian tribe.
  • A painting from 1843 of an Adyghe warrior by Sir William Allan.
    A painting from 1843 of an Adyghe warrior by Sir William Allan.
  • An Adyghe man in the 18th century
    An Adyghe man in the 18th century
  • General Georges Catroux and Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme, escorted by Vichy French Circassian cavalry (Gardes Tcherkess).
    General Georges Catroux and Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme, escorted by Vichy French Circassian cavalry (Gardes Tcherkess).
  • Circassian girl with traditional clothes
    Circassian girl with traditional clothes

See also

References

  1. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2015). Dictionary of Languages: The definitive reference to more than 400 languages. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 136. ISBN 978-1408102145.
  2. ^ a b Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0813560694.
  3. ^ Danver, Steven L. (2015). Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. Routledge. p. 528. ISBN 978-1317464006.
  4. ^ Natho, Kadir I. (2009). Circassian History. Wayne, New Jersey: Xlibris Corporation. p. 505. ISBN 978-1-4415-2389-1.
  5. ^ Zhemukhov, Sufian (2008). "Circassian World Responses to the New Challenges" (PDF). PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 54: 2. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  6. ^ Alankuş, Sevda (1999). Taymaz, Erol (ed.). Kültürel-Etnik Kimlikler ve Çerkesler. Ankara, Turkey: Kafder Yayınları.
  7. ^ Alankuş, Sevda; Taymaz, Erol (2009). "The Formation of a Circassian Diaspora in Turkey". Adyghe (Cherkess) in the 19th Century: Problems of War and Peace. Adygea, Russia: Maikop State Technology University. p. 2. Retrieved 4 May 2016. Today, the largest communities of Circassians, about 5–7 million, live in Turkey, and about 200,000 Circassians live in the Middle Eastern countries (Jordan, Syria, Egypt, and Israel). The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a new wave of migration from diaspora countries to Europe and the United States. It is estimated that there are now more than 100,000 Circassian living in the European Union countries. The community in Kosovo expatriated to Adygea after the war in 1998.
  8. ^ a b Russian Census 2010: Population by ethnicity Template:Wayback Template:Ru icon
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Russian Federation Federal State Statistics Service (FSSS) (2010). "Всероссийская перепись 2010, Материалы. Табл. 7. Национальный состав населения по субъектам Российской Федерации" [All-Russian Census 2010, Materials. Table 7. National Composition of the Populations on the Subjects of the Russian Federation] (Press release) (in Russian). Moscow. {{cite press release}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  10. ^ a b c d Zhemukhov, Sufian (2008). "Circassian World Responses to the New Challenges" (PDF). PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo No. 54: 2. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  11. ^ "Syrian Circassians returning to Russia's Caucasus region". TRTWorld. TRTWorld and agencies. 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016. Currently, approximately 80,000 ethnic Circassians live in Syria after their ancestors were forced out of the northern Caucasus by Russians between 1863 and 1867.
  12. ^ "The Russian Presidential Council for Civil Society and Human Rights calls for the hosting of Syrian refugees in Russia". Sputniknews. 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
  13. ^ "single | The Jamestown Foundation". Jamestown.org. 7 May 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  14. ^ Lopes, Tiago André Ferreira. "The Offspring of the Arab Spring" (PDF). Strategic Outlook. Observatory for Human Security (OSH). Retrieved 16 June 2013.
  15. ^ Besleney, Zeynel Abidin (2014). The Circassian Diaspora in Turkey: A Political History. Routledge. p. 96. ISBN 978-1317910046.
  16. ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 46. ISBN 978-0313320910.
  17. ^ Louër, Laurence (2007). To be an Arab in Israel. Columbia University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0231140683.
  18. ^ Prepared by Antoniy Galabov National Report Bulgaria p. 20. Council of Europe.
  19. ^ Zhemukhov, Sufian, Circassian World: Responses to the New Challenges
  20. ^ One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups, Questia Online Library, 25 August 2010, p. 12
  21. ^ Gammer, Mos%u030Ce (2004), The Caspian Region: a Re-emerging Region, London: Routledge, p. 67{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ "Главная страница проекта "Арена" : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба СРЕДА". Sreda.org. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  23. ^ "International Circassian Association". Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  24. ^ a b Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (1998). Mullen, Christopher A.; Ryan, J. Atticus (eds.). Yearbook 1997. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. pp. 67–69. ISBN 90-411-1022-4.
  25. ^ Spencer, Edmund, Travels in the Western Caucasus, including a Tour through Imeritia, Mingrelia, Turkey, Moldavia, Galicia, Silesia, and Moravia in 1836. London, H. Colburn, 1838. p. 6.
  26. ^ Loewe, Louis. A Dictionary of the Circassian Language: in Two Parts: English-Circassian-Turkish, and Circassian-English-Turkish. London, Bell, 1854. p. 5.
  27. ^ a b Latham, R. G. Elements of Comparative Philology. London, Walton and Maberly, 1862. p. 279.
  28. ^ Latham, R. G. Descriptive Ethnology. London, J. Van Voorst, 1859. p. 50.
  29. ^ Guthrie, William, James Ferguson, and John Knox. A New Geographical, Historical and Commercial Grammar and Present State of the Several Kingdoms of the World... Philadelphia, Johnson & Warner, 1815. p. 549.
  30. ^ Taitbout, De Marigny. Three Voyages in the Black Sea to the Coast of Circassia. London, 1837. pp. 5–6.
  31. ^ S. A. Arutyunov. "Conclusion of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the ethnonym "Circassian" and the toponym "Circassia." 25 May 2010. Template:Ru icon
  32. ^ a b http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.xlsx
  33. [[#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEВсероссийская_перепись_2010,_Итоги[httpwwwgksrufree_docnew_siteperepis2010crocDocumentsVol4pub-04-01pdf_Т._4._—_Табл._1._Национальный_состав_населения]_(скачать:'"`UNIQ--ref-00000033-QINU`"')_33-0|^]] Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги, Т. 4. — Табл. 1. Национальный состав населения (скачать:[32]).
  34. [[#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEВсероссийская_перепись_2010,_Итоги[httpwwwgksrufree_docnew_siteperepis2010crocDocumentsVol4pub-04-01pdf_Т._4._—_Табл._1._Национальный_состав_населения]_(скачать:'"`UNIQ--ref-00000035-QINU`"')_34-0|^]] Всероссийская перепись 2010, Итоги, Т. 4. — Табл. 1. Национальный состав населения (скачать:[32]).
  35. ^ "Анчабадзе Ю.Д., Смирнова Я.С. Адыгейцы". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  36. ^ Li, Jun; Absher, Devin M.; Tang, Hua; Southwick, Audrey M.; Casto, Amanda M.; Ramachandran, Sohini; Cann, Howard M.; Barsh, Gregory S.; Feldman, Marcus; Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi L.; Myers, Richard M. (2008), "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation", Science, 319 (5866): 1100–1104, Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1100L, doi:10.1126/science.1153717, PMID 18292342.
  37. ^ a b "המרכז למורשת הצ'רקסית בכפר קמא". www.circassianmuseum.co.il.
  38. ^ a b The Penny Magazine. London, Charles Knight, 1838. p. 138.
  39. ^ a b Minahan, James. One Europe, Many Nations: a Historical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, USA, Greenwood, 2000. p. 354.
  40. ^ Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 192. Retrieved 8 November 2008.
  41. ^ McGregor, Andrew James (2006). A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 15. ISBN 9780275986018. By the late fourteenth century Circassians from the north Caucasus region had become the majority in the Mamluk ranks.
  42. ^ "Rekhaniya". Jewish Virtual Library.
  43. ^ "ČARKAS". Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  44. ^ a b c Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East Facts On File, Incorporated ISBN 978-1438126760 p. 141
  45. ^ "Circassian". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  46. ^ http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EEPI0143&DataType=WorldHistory&WinType=Free
  47. ^ W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). "Islam And The Abolition Of Slavery". Oxford University Press. pp. 13–16. ISBN 0-19-522151-6
  48. ^ "The Circassian Slave; or, The Sultan's Favorite". The Project Gutenberg EBook.
  49. ^ Richmond, Walter (2013). The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. back cover. ISBN 978-0-8135-6069-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond pp. 728–729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 ISBN 1598849484
  51. ^ Levene 2005:297
  52. ^ Richmond, Walter (2013). "Chapter 4". The Circassian Genocide. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-6069-4. [clarification needed]
  53. ^ a b King 2008: 94–6.
  54. ^ Shenfield, Stephen D., 1999. The Circassians: a forgotten genocide?. In Levene, Mark and Penny Roberts, eds., [clarification needed] The Massacre in History. Oxford and New York, Berghahn Books. Series: War and Genocide; 1. 149–62.
  55. ^ UNPO 2006.
  56. ^ Neumann 1840
  57. ^ Shenfield 1999
  58. ^ Levene 2005:299
  59. ^ Levene 2005 : 302
  60. ^ Barry, Ellen (20 May 2011). "Georgia Says Russia Committed Genocide in 19th Century". New York Times. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  61. ^ Peleschuk, Dan (27 March 2012). "Long Lost Brethren". Russiaprofile.org. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  62. ^ "single | The Jamestown Foundation". Jamestown.org. 7 May 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  63. ^ "Circassians in Israel". My Jewish Learning.
  64. ^ "Caucasus Foundation". www.kafkas.org.tr.
  65. ^ "Israel's Ethnic Communities". archive.constantcontact.com.
  66. ^ "His Majesty King Abdullah II and the Circassian Elders Council 2011 (Translated)". YouTube. 5 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  67. ^ "Jordan News Agency". Petra. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  68. ^ "Jordan at the Tattoo | Edinburgh Military Tattoo". www.edintattoo.co.uk. 5 August 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  69. ^ Echoes from Jordan Archived 27 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  70. ^ "ČARKAS". Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  71. ^ Oberling, Pierre, Georgians and Circassians in Iran, The Hague, 1963; pp. 127–143
  72. ^ Engelbert Kaempfer (p. 204)
  73. ^ Khanbaghi, Aptin, The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran, p. 130
  74. ^ Antiquitates christianæ, or, The history of the life and death of the holy Jesus as also the lives acts and martyrdoms of his Apostles: in two parts, by Taylor, Jeremy, 1613–1667. p. 101.
  75. ^ Arena - Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia • sreda.org
  76. ^ 2012 Survey Maps. "Ogonek". No 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  77. ^ "North Caucasus Insurgency Admits Killing Circassian Ethnographer". Caucasus Report, 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  78. ^ Valery Dzutsev. "High-profile Murders in Kabardino-Balkaria Underscore the Government's Inability to Control Situation in the Republic". Eurasia Daily Monitor, volume 8, issue 1, 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  79. ^ "Главная страница проекта "Арена" : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба СРЕДА". Sreda.org. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  80. ^ "Хабзэ. Т-дамыгъэ / Т-символ". Habze.info. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  81. ^ This section summarizes Walter Richmond, Northwest Caucasus, 2008, Chapter 2
  82. ^ "Jordanian Cuisine(Bedouins, Circassians, & Palestinians)(مترجم للعربية)". YouTube. 14 January 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  83. ^ "AdygheCuisine" (PDF). Circassianworld.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  84. ^ "تركى شركسية تقديم الشيف الشربينى". YouTube. 17 November 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  85. ^ "Адыгэ 1оры1уатэм ухэзгъэгъозэн тхылъ", Ехъул1э Ат1ыф, Нахэхэр (129–132), гощын (1), Адыгэ ш1уш1э Хасэ, Йордания, 2009.
  86. ^ "Adiga - Circassians". 20 August 2014. Archived from the original on 20 August 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  87. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Čerkesses". E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936. Volume II. Leiden, 1987. p. 834. 9789004082656
  88. ^ Культура адыгов: по свидетельствам европейских авторов. Ельбрус, 1993.
  89. ^ a b "Т. 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство". Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года (Тома официальной публикации). Retrieved 22 November 2013. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_chapter= ignored (|trans-chapter= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  90. ^ a b c "Significant numbers of Adyghe speakers reside in Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Israel". Languageserver.uni-graz.at. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  91. ^ "International Circassian Association". Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  92. ^ Pierre, Oberling Georgians and Circassians in Iran
  93. ^ "IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (6) in Islamic Iran". Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  94. ^ "ČARKAS". Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  95. ^ Ahmet Katav; Bilgay Duman (November 2012). "Iraqi Circassians (Chechens, Dagestanis, Adyghes)" (PDF). ORSAM Reports (134). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  96. ^ "Al-Gaddafi speech about the Circassians". Youtube.com. 30 July 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  97. ^ "&n_page=1 All Ukrainian Census 2001". 2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  98. ^ a b "Circassians: Home thoughts from abroad: Circassians mourn the past—and organise for the future", The Economist, dated 26 May 2012.
  99. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (6 February 2014). "Russia's Sochi Olympics Stirs Circassian Nationalism". TIME.com. Retrieved 22 February 2015.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Circassians.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Circassians&oldid=752598724"