Cosmogenic nuclide
Cosmogenic nuclides (or cosmogenic isotopes) are rare isotopes created when a high-energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ Solar System atom, causing nucleons (protons and neutrons) to be expelled from the atom (see cosmic ray spallation). These isotopes are produced within Earth materials such as rocks or soil, in Earth's atmosphere, and in extraterrestrial items such as meteorites. By measuring cosmogenic isotopes, scientists are able to gain insight into a range of geological and astronomical processes. There are both radioactive and stable cosmogenic isotopes. Some of these radioisotopes are tritium, carbon-14 and phosphorus-32.
Certain light (low atomic number) primordial nuclides (some isotopes of lithium, beryllium and boron) are thought[according to whom?] to have arisen not only during the Big Bang, and also (and perhaps primarily) to have been made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of cosmic ray spallation on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic rays as compared with their ratios and abundances of certain other nuclides on Earth. However, the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System" (meaning inside an already-aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by cosmic ray spallation before the formation of the Solar System, from being termed "cosmogenic nuclides"— even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on Earth, "cosmogenically." However, beryllium (all of it stable beryllium-9) is present[citation needed] primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed.
To make the distinction in another fashion, the timing of their formation determines which subset of cosmic ray spallation-produced nuclides are termed primordial or cosmogenic (a nuclide cannot belong to both classes). By convention, certain stable nuclides of lithium, beryllium, and boron are thought[according to whom?] to have been produced by cosmic ray spallation in the period of time between the Big Bang and the Solar System's formation (thus making these primordial nuclides, by definition) are not termed "cosmogenic," even though they were[citation needed] formed by the same process as the cosmogenic nuclides (although at an earlier time). The primordial nuclide beryllium-9, the only stable beryllium isotope, is an example of this type of nuclide.
In contrast, even though the radioactive isotopes beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 fall into this series of three light elements (lithium, beryllium, boron) formed mostly[citation needed] by cosmic ray spallation nucleosynthesis, both of these nuclides have half lives too short for them to have been formed before the formation of the Solar System, and thus they cannot be primordial nuclides. Since the cosmic ray spallation route is the only possible source[citation needed] of beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 occurrence naturally in the environment, they are therefore cosmogenic.
Production modes
Here is a list of radioisotopes formed by the action of cosmic rays on the atmosphere; the list also contains the production mode of the isotope.[1]
| Isotope | Mode of formation |
|---|---|
| 3H (tritium) | 14N (n, 12C)³H |
| 7Be | Spallation (N and O) |
| 10Be | Spallation (N and O) |
| 11C | Spallation (N and O) |
| 14C | 14N (n, p) 14C |
| 18F | 18O (p, n)18F and Spallation (Ar) |
| 22Na | Spallation (Ar) |
| 24Na | Spallation (Ar) |
| 28Mg | Spallation (Ar) |
| 26Al | Spallation (Ar) |
| 31Si | Spallation (Ar) |
| 32Si | Spallation (Ar) |
| 32P | Spallation (Ar) |
| 34mCl | Spallation (Ar) |
| 35S | Spallation (Ar) |
| 36Cl | 35Cl (n, γ)36Cl |
| 37Ar | 37Cl (p, n)37Ar |
| 38Cl | Spallation (Ar) |
| 39Ar | 38Ar (n, γ)39Ar |
| 39Cl | 40Ar (n, np)39Cl & spallation (Ar) |
| 41Ar | 40Ar (n, γ)41Ar |
| 81Kr | 80Kr (n, γ) 81Kr |
Some cosmogenic nuclides are formed in situ in soil and rock exposed to cosmic rays. Additional nuclides not listed above include:
Applications in geology listed by isotope
| element | mass | half-life (years) | typical application |
|---|---|---|---|
| beryllium | 10 | 1,387,000 | exposure dating of rocks, soils, ice cores |
| aluminium | 26 | 720,000 | exposure dating of rocks, sediment |
| chlorine | 36 | 308,000 | exposure dating of rocks, groundwater tracer |
| calcium | 41 | 103,000 | exposure dating of carbonate rocks |
| iodine | 129 | 15.7 million | groundwater tracer |
References
- ^ SCOPE 50 - Radioecology after Chernobyl, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), 1993. See table 1.9 in Section 1.4.5.2.