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Edible mushroom

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"Mushroom (food)" redirects here. For other uses, see Mushroom.
Assorted wild edible mushrooms

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of properly identified and prepared fungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including their palatability and absence of dangerous mycotoxins. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value, often either being cultivated or harvested wild. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain may be collected on a smaller scale.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals from polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and potentially lethal heavy metals.

Psychoactive mushrooms can also be confused with edible species. Additionally, mushrooms were consumed medicinally in traditional medicine, but are not upheld by evidence. Edible species typically must be cooked, sometimes requiring parboiling or slow cooking to destroy toxins, with only select species able to be eaten raw. Many can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.

Description

[edit]
See also: § Safety concerns, and § Uses

Edibility may be defined by criteria including desirable taste and aroma and the absence of poisonous effects on humans.[1] Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.[2][3] Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated.[4]

Wild mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand.[5] Correct identification is required to prevent the confusion of potentially fatal poisonous mushrooms with edible ones.[6][7][8] Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.[9]

Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in grocery stores and farmers' markets when in season; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes even sold as luxury items.[10] Mushrooms can be purchased fresh and many are also sold dried.[11] Many species require cooking to eliminate toxicity.[6][12]

List of provisionally edible mushrooms

[edit]
Mushroom image Part image Scientific name Common name Description Distribution Cultivation Edibility
Agaricus arvensis Horse mushroom[13] Up to 20 cm (8 in) wide; resembles deadly Amanita species[14] Britain and North America Harvested wild Edible for most people, but can resemble deadly Amanitas[15]
Agaricus bisporus Button mushroom, common mushroom, cremini, portobello, and others[16][17] As it ages, it turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown.[17] Widespread[citation needed] in rich soil[18] Widely cultivated[18] Edible and widely consumed[16][17]
Agaricus campestris Field mushroom Up to 12 cm (4+1⁄2 in) wide;[19] resembles deadly Amanitas[20] Widespread in grasses[21] Harvested wild Choice,[19][22] but can resemble poisonous species[23]
Agaricus silvaticus Pinewood mushroom Up to 10 cm wide[24] Harvested wild Edible cooked,[25][24] but resembles some inedible species[26]
Aleuria aurantia Orange peel fungus Up to 10 cm wide, orange, cup-shaped, and fuzzy[27] Europe and North America[28][27] Harvested wild Edible but difficult to collect[29][30]
Amanita caesarea Caesar's Amanita[31] Orange to red cap, up to 20 cm wide;[31] resembles the poisonous Amanita muscaria[32] North Africa, Eurasia, and North America[31] Harvested wild Edible, reportedly raw and cooked[33]
Amanita fulva Tawny grisette Up to 10 cm wide;[34] resembles poisonous Amanitas Europe and North America[35][34] Edible cooked[36]
Amanita muscaria Fly agaric Red cap with white warts; up to 30 cm wide[37] Widespread;[38][39] symbiotic with various trees Parboiling is required.[40] When fresh, it contains the hallucinogen muscimol and some ibotenic acid.[41]
Amanita rubescens Blusher Up to 15 cm wide;[42] resembles related species[43] Eurasia,[citation needed] western North America[43] Edible when cooked,[44] which destroys a toxin[45]
Armillaria mellea Honey mushroom Up to 15 cm wide[46] Eurasia,[citation needed] North America[47] Harvested wild Edible, usually excluding the tough stalk;[46] best when young and well-cooked[48]
Boletus edulis Porcino Reddish-brown cap up to 30 cm or more wide[49] Widespread in Northern Hemisphere[50] Commercially harvested Choice[51]
Boletus pinophilus Pine bolete Cap up to 40 cm wide[52] Eurasia[53] Commercially harvested Reportedly edible[54]
Boletus variipes Tannish cap[55] Eastern North America with hardwoods[56] Commercially harvested Choice[57]
Calbovista subsculpta Sculptured giant puffball Up to 15 cm (6 in) wide[25] Western North America in montane areas[58] Commercially harvested Choice while the gleba is still firm and white[59]
Calocybe gambosa St. George's mushroom Up to 15 cm wide[60] Europe from spring to summer[60] Harvested wild Edible cooked or pickled[60]
Calvatia cyathiformis Purple-spored puffball Up to 20 cm wide[61] North America[61] and Australia Harvested wild Reportedly edible when young[62]
Calvatia gigantea Giant puffball Up to 60 cm (20 in) wide and 20 kilograms (45 lb)[63] Temperate areas around the world in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests from late summer and autumn[63][64] Commercially harvested Choice when immature and white, but may cause a laxative effect[64]
Cantharellus cibarius Golden chanterelle Up to 15 cm wide[65] Europe[66] Commercially harvested Choice[67] but resembles some poisonous mushrooms[65][68]
Cerioporus squamosus Dryad's saddle and pheasant's back mushroom Up to 30 cm or more wide[69][70] Europe[70] and eastern U.S.[69] Harvested wild Edible young and cooked[71][70]
Chroogomphus Pine-spikes or spike-caps Northern Hemisphere[72] Harvested wild Some edible species[73]
Collybia nuda Blewit[74] Up to 15 cm wide;[75] may resemble toxic Cortinarius species Europe and North America Commercially harvested Edible[74]
Collybia personata (syn. Lepista saeva) Field blewit or blue leg Up to 12 cm wide[76] Europe[76] Edible[77]
Coprinopsis atramentaria (syn. Coprinus atramentarius) Common inkcap Up to 10 cm wide[78] Northern Hemisphere and Australia[79][80] Edible when young but toxic if consumed with alcohol due to the presence of coprine[81][82]
Coprinus comatus Shaggy mane, shaggy inkcap or lawyer's wig Up to 8 cm wide[83] North America in grasslands and meadows[84] Harvested wild Must be cooked as soon as possible after harvesting or the caps will deliquesce (turn to 'ink')[85][86]
Cortinarius caperatus Gypsy mushroom Tannish cap, up to 12 cm wide[87] Northern Europe and northern North America[88][89] Commercially harvested Choice,[90] but can resemble some poisonous European species[91]
Craterellus cornucopioides Trumpet of death or horn of plenty Up to 8 cm wide[92] Eurasia, North America, and Australia[93] Commercially harvested Choice[94]
Craterellus tubaeformis Tube chanterelle or yellowfoot Up to 4 cm wide[95] North America and Asia[96][97] Commercially harvested Choice[98]
Cyclocybe aegerita Poplar fieldcap Up to 10 cm wide[99] Grows on poplars and other trees[99] Commercially cultivated in Asia and Australia[99] Difficult to identify[100][101]
Cyttaria espinosae Chile[102] Harvested wild Edible[102]
Fistulina hepatica Beefsteak polypore or ox tongue Up to 6 cm wide[103] Europe and North America[104][105] Harvested wild Edible but older specimens should be soaked overnight then cooked to avoid gastric upset[105]
Flammulina filiformis Enoki Up to 4.5 cm wide[106] Asia Commercially cultivated[107] Asian cuisine[108]
Flammulina velutipes Velvet shank Up to 10 cm wide[109] Europe and North America[109][110] Harvested wild Edible cooked, best with the skin removed[111]
Gomphidius glutinosus Slimy spike-cap Up to 12 cm wide[112] Eurasia[citation needed] and North America[113] Harvested wild Edible[114][115] but possibly not recommended; accumulates heavy metals[116]
Grifola frondosa Hen of the woods or sheep's head Up to 50 cm wide[117] Eastern North America[118] and Eurasia[117] Commercially harvested Choice[119] but some may be allergic[118]
Gyromitra esculenta False morel, turban or brain mushroom Up to 12 cm wide[120] North America and Central Europe[120][121] Parboiling required to reduce gyromitrin toxicity, which may not be fully effective[122]
Handkea utriformis (syn. Calvatia utriformis) Puffball, up to 25 cm wide[123] Widespread in northern temperate zones[124] Harvested wild Edible when immature and white[125]
Hericium erinaceus Lion's mane[126] Tooth fungus up to 40 cm wide[127] Europe and North America[128][129] Commercially harvested Best when young[126]
Hydnum repandum Sweet tooth or hedgehog mushroom[130] Up to 17 cm or more wide[131] Europe and North America[132][131] Commercially harvested Choice; cooking removes bitterness in older specimens[133]
Hygrophorus chrysodon Gold flecked woodwax Up to 14 cm wide[134] Northern Hemisphere[135] Harvested wild Edible but bland[136][137]
Hypsizygus tessulatus Beech mushroom Cap up to 15 cm wide[138] North America[138] Commercially cultivated Tough flesh[138]
Imleria badia Bay bolete Up to 10 cm wide[139] Eurasia and North America[140][139] Harvested wild Edible but allergenic for some[141][142]
Kalaharituber pfeilii Up to 12 cm wide[143] Southern Africa[144] Harvested wild Edible[144]
Laccocephalum mylittae Blackfellow's bread Sclerotium grows up to 60 cm wide[145] Australia[146] Harvested wild Edible but not choice[146]
Lactarius corrugis Corrugated-cap milky[147] Brownish-red cap up to 12 cm wide[148] Eastern North America with oak, July–Sept.[148] Choice[149]
Lactarius deliciosus Saffron milk cap Up to 20 cm wide[150] Europe[150] Commercially harvested Not necessarily choice, but popular in Russia[151]
Lactarius deterrimus Orange milkcap Up to 12 cm wide Eurasia[152] Harvested wild Edible[153]
Lactarius hygrophoroides Up to 8 cm wide[154] Eastern North America with oak, June–Sept.[154] Edible[139]
Lactarius indigo Indigo milk cap Blue cap, fading to grayish;[155] up to 15 cm wide[156] Northern Hemisphere[157][158][159] Harvested wild Edible[160]
Lactarius paradoxus Blue-green to gray cap; up to 8 cm wide[161] Southern and eastern U.S., autumn–winter[161] Edible but bitter with age[161]
Lactarius rubrilacteus Cap up to 14 cm wide[162] Western North America, June–Oct.[163] Harvested wild Edible but grainy[162]
Lactarius subdulcis Mild milkcap Up to 7 cm wide[164] Europe[165] Harvested wild Edible when cooked but not choice[166]
Lactarius volemus Fishy milkcap Up to 11 cm wide[164] Eurasia and North America[164][167][168] Harvested wild Edible but grainy; best slow-cooked[168]
Laetiporus sulphureus Sulphur shelf, chicken mushroom A distinct bracket fungus[169] Europe and North America[170][169] Harvested wild Edible when watery, after cooking[171][172]
Leccinum aurantiacum Red-capped scaber stalk Orange-red cap, up to 15 cm wide[173] Europe[174] Harvested wild Edible cooked, with risk of toxicity;[173][175] linked to one death[176]
Leccinum scabrum Birch bolete Up to 10 cm wide[177] Europe,[178] North America[177] and New Zealand[179] Harvested wild Edible when firm[177]
Leccinum versipelle (syn. Boletus testaceoscaber) Orange birch bolete Orangish cap, up to 15 cm wide[180] Europe, Aug.–Nov.[180] Harvested wild Edible cooked[180]
Lentinula edodes Shiitake Southeast Asia[181] Commercially cultivated worldwide[182] Edible;[2] may cause dermatitis for some unless cooked[183][184]
Macrolepiota procera Parasol mushroom Up to 25 cm wide[185] Eurasia[186] Harvested wild Choice but resembles some poisonous species[187][188]
Marasmius oreades Fairy ring champignon Up to 5 cm wide[189] Europe and North America[190][191] Harvested wild Choice[188]
Morchella spp. including Morchella esculenta Morels Can resemble poisonous false morels including Gyromitra esculenta Northern Hemisphere; open scrub, woodland or open ground in late spring Commercially harvested; difficult to grow commercially[192] Potentially toxic if uncooked or consumed with alcohol[193][194][195]
Phallus indusiatus Basket stinkhorn[196] Cap up to 4 cm wide;[196] stem up to 25 cm long[197] Tropical regions[198][199] Commercially cultivated Asian cuisine[200]
Pleurotus ostreatus Oyster mushroom Up to 30 cm wide;[201] resembles toxic species[202] Widespread in temperate and subtropical areas[203] Commercially cultivated at an industrial scale[204] Choice[201] but resembles inedible Lentinellus species[202][205]
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum Toothed jelly fungus Up to 7 cm wide and tall[206] Eurasia[207] Harvested wild Edible[206]
Sparassis crispa Cauliflower mushroom Up to 24 cm across[208] Europe[209] Harvested wild Edible when young;[210] best slow-cooked[211]
Stropharia rugosoannulata Wine cap Up to 30 cm wide[212] North America[213] Commercially cultivated Choice[214]
Suillus bovinus Bovine bolete Up to 10 cm wide[215] Eurasia,[216] South Africa,[217] North America,[218] and Australasia[219] Harvested wild Edible[220]
Suillus brevipes Short-stemmed slippery Jack Up to 10 cm wide[221] North America[221] Harvested wild Edible[222]
Suillus decipiens Yellowish cap, up to 7 cm wide; yellow tubes[223] Southeastern North America[223] Harvested wild Edible[223]
Suillus granulatus Weeping bolete, granulated bolete Brownish cap, up to 12 cm wide[224] Northern Hemisphere with pines[225] Harvested wild Edible[226]
Suillus grevillei Tamarack jack[227] Orangish cap, up to 10 cm wide[228] Eurasia and North America under larch[228][229][227] Harvested wild Edible cooked, with the cap cuticle removed[223][228]
Suillus luteus Slippery jack Brownish cap, up to 10 cm or more wide[230] Northern Hemisphere[231] Harvested wild Edible with the cap cuticle removed;[232][233] allergenic for some[234]
Suillus spraguei Painted suillus Yellow cap with reddish scales; up to 12 cm wide[235][236] Eurasia and North America[237] Harvested wild Edible[238]
Suillus tomentosus Woolly-capped suillus Up to 12 cm wide[239] North America[240] Harvested wild Can cause gastric upset[238]
Tremella fuciformis White jelly mushroom Up to 7 cm across[241] Widespread in tropical areas[241] Commercially cultivated Asian sweet dishes for texture[242]
Tricholoma matsutake Matsutake Up to 35 cm wide[243] Eurasia and northern North America in forests[243] Commercially harvested[244] Prized in Japanese cuisine[245] but can resemble Inocybe pyriodora, a poisonous species with brown spores[243]
Tricholoma portentosum Streaked tricholoma Up to 11 cm wide[246] Europe and North America, coniferous woodland[247] Harvested wild Edible but resembles poisonous relatives[247]
Tricholoma terreum Grey knight Up to 7 cm wide;[248] resembles a poisonous species[249] Europe and North America[250][251] Edible but can cause rhabdomyolysis if eaten in large quantities[252]
Tuber aestivum Summer truffle Up to 10 cm wide[253] France, Italy and Spain[253] Commercially harvested[253]
Tuber borchii Bianchetto truffle Commercially cultivated (experimental)[254]
Tuber melanosporum Black truffle Up to 10 cm wide[255] Europe[256] Commercially cultivated[257] Choice[257]
Ustilago maydis Corn smut Pathogens of cereals Harvested wild Considered a delicacy in Mexico; used as fillings in quesadillas, tacos and soups[258]
Verpa bohemica Wrinkled thimble-cap Up to 4 cm wide[259] North America and Eurasia[259][260] Edible cooked, initially only in small portions;[261] contains a toxin similar to gyromitrin[262]
Volvariella bombycina Silky rosegill[263] Pale cap, up to 20 cm wide[263] Widespread but uncommon[264] Commercially cultivated Edible[264]
Volvariella volvacea Paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom[263] Can resemble death caps when immature,[265][266] when they are usually picked[267] Asia[268] Commercially cultivated[268] Edible with caution[263]

Cultivation

[edit]
Main article: Fungiculture
Mushroom and truffle production
2023, tonnes
‹See TfM› China 47,143,126
 Japan 462,158
 United States 302,390
 Poland 240,400
 Netherlands 205,000
World 50,010,109
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[269]

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries.[270] A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular yet remains a challenge to cultivate.[citation needed] Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.[citation needed]

In 2023, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 50 million tonnes, led by China with 94% of the total (table).

Safety concerns

[edit]

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw.[6] Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.[6][7][8] Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.[271]

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning.[272] When eating any fungus for the first time, only a small quantity of one species should be consumed at a time, allowing for several hours to identify any potential allergic reaction.[273] Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals, including arsenic and iron, sometimes in lethal concentrations.[274] On the other hand, cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of certain slightly poisonous mushrooms (e.g. Morchellas) enough to be consumed.[193]

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis, with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin.[citation needed] Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.[citation needed]

White mushrooms, boiled
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy117 kJ (28 kcal)
5.3 g
0.5 g
2.2 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
8%
0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
23%
0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)
28%
4.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
44%
2.2 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
18 μg
Choline
4%
19.9 mg
Vitamin D
3%
21 IU
Vitamin K
0%
0 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
0%
6 mg
Copper
56%
0.5 mg
Iron
9%
1.7 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
4%
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
7%
87 mg
Potassium
12%
356 mg
Selenium
24%
13.4 μg
Zinc
8%
0.9 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water91.1 g
Link to Full USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[275] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[276]

Nutrition

[edit]

Boiled white mushrooms are 91% water, 5% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.3% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white mushrooms supply 28 calories of food energy and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, copper, and selenium (23-56% DV), with a moderate content of potassium (12% DV, table).

Vitamin D

[edit]

The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light, even after harvesting and being processed into dry powder.[277][278]

Name Chemical composition Structure
Vitamin D1 ergocalciferol with lumisterol, 1:1[279]
Vitamin D2 ergocalciferol (made from ergosterol) Note double bond at top center.
Vitamin D3 cholecalciferol (made from 7-Dehydrocholesterol in the skin).

When exposed to UV light before or after harvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D2.[277][278] This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D3 is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much.[277] Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D2.[278]

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms is ergocalciferol, or vitamin D2. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D3, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D2 has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements, vitamin D3 is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.[citation needed]

Research

[edit]

A 2021 review of prospective studies found that eating mushrooms did not significantly affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.[280]

Uses

[edit]
A vendor in Guatemala with a variety of mushrooms for sale

The accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is required to ensure its edibility and to safeguard against poisoning.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]

The earliest evidence of consumption of mushrooms comes from 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile.[citation needed] Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom in his belongings.[citation needed] Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.[281] The Forme of Cury, a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.[282]

Culinary

[edit]
See also: List of mushroom dishes

A minimal amount of water should be used to clean specimens, ideally in the field.[273] Only select species can be safely eaten raw.[283]

Cooking

[edit]
Stuffed mushrooms prepared using portobello mushrooms

Cooking mushrooms before consumption is often required, both to eliminate mycotoxins, including trace levels of toxic hydrazines, and also to improve palatability and texture.[12] Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Chitin, a structural polymer in the cell walls of mushrooms, does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F), which is not reached in any normal cooking.[284][285] However, chitin connections may be broken down by cooking, allowing for easier digestion.[12]

Storage

[edit]
A collection of dried mushrooms

Mushrooms should be used as soon as possible, even if refrigerated (particularly Coprinus species).[273] Mushrooms can be frozen, but they freeze best when cooked first.[286] Those that do not require cooking can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.[287]

In traditional medicine

[edit]
Main article: Medicinal uses of fungi

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments.[288] Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine[289] for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy.[290][291] (Since about the mid-20th century, some compounds found in fungi have been developed scientifically for medicine, e.g. antibiotics.)[292][293][294]

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K[295] or lentinan.[296] Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy.[297][298]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Mattila P, Suonpää K, Piironen V (2000). "Functional properties of edible mushrooms". Nutrition. 16 (7–8): 694–6. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00341-5. PMID 10906601.
  2. ^ a b Ole G. Mouritsen; Klavs Styrbaek (2014). Umami: Unlocking the Secrets of the Fifth Taste. Columbia University Press. pp. 11, 52, 110. ISBN 978-0-231-16890-8.
  3. ^ Paul Adams (24 November 2015). "Put the science of umami to work for you". Popular Science, Bonnier Corporation. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
  4. ^ Arora 1986, pp. 3, 310.
  5. ^ Chang, Shu-Ting; Phillip G. Miles (1989). Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and Environmental Impact. CRC Press. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-0-8493-1043-0.
  6. ^ a b c d e "Wild Mushroom Warning. Mushroom Poisoning: Don't Invite 'The Death Angel' to Dinner". US National Capital Poison Center, Washington, DC. 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
  7. ^ a b c Barbee G, Berry-Cabán C, Barry J, Borys D, Ward J, Salyer S (2009). "Analysis of mushroom exposures in Texas requiring hospitalization, 2005–2006". Journal of Medical Toxicology. 5 (2): 59–62. doi:10.1007/BF03161087. PMC 3550325. PMID 19415588.
  8. ^ a b c Osborne, Tegan (3 February 2016). "Deadly death cap mushrooms found in Canberra's inner-south as season begins early". ABC News. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  9. ^ Arora 1986, pp. 19–20.
  10. ^ "Much Room for Mushrooms: Morel, Truffle, Matsutake and Why They're So Expensive". MICHELIN Guide. 28 November 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2025.
  11. ^ Arora 1986, pp. 890–91.
  12. ^ a b c Sayner, Adam (27 September 2021). "Can You Eat Mushroom Stems? How to Cook With Them". GroCycle. Retrieved 2 October 2025.
  13. ^ Kuo, M. (2007). 100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-472-03126-9.
  14. ^ Davis, Sommer & Menge 2012, p. 220.
  15. ^ Arora 1986, pp. 332–33.
  16. ^ a b "Every Type Of Mushroom You Need To Know About". HuffPost. 24 March 2014. Retrieved 27 November 2025.
  17. ^ a b c "What's the Difference Between Cremini and Portobello Mushrooms?". The Kitchn. Retrieved 27 November 2025.
  18. ^ a b Arora 1986, p. 319-320.
  19. ^ a b Davis, Sommer & Menge 2012, pp. 224–25.
  20. ^ Meuninck, Jim (2017). Foraging Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms. Falcon Guides. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4930-2669-2.
  21. ^ Roberts, Peter; Evans, Shelley (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-908005-85-4.
  22. ^ Miller Jr. & Miller 2006, p. 283.
  23. ^ Meuninck, Jim (2017). Foraging Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms. Falcon Guides. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4930-2669-2.
  24. ^ a b Francis-Baker 2021, p. 160.
  25. ^ a b Phillips 2010, p. 220.
  26. ^ Miller Jr. & Miller 2006, p. 277.
  27. ^ a b Audubon 2023, p. 41.
  28. ^ Francis-Baker 2021, p. 103.
  29. ^ Phillips 2010, p. 368.
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Sources

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