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Standard electrode potential (data page)

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The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at:

Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation.

Relationships between Standard Electrode Potentials and Gibbs Free Energy

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Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy

∆G° = –zFE°,

where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing coulombs transferred per mole electrons. F = 96 485 C/mol. For example, from

Fe2+(aq) + 2 e– ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V),

the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe2+(aq) ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84.907 kJ/(mol e–). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆fG°) for an Fe2+(aq) ion, since e– and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.

Data from different sources may cause inconsistencies. For example:

Ti3+(aq) + e– ⇌ Ti2+(aq) E3→2 = -0.37 V
Ti2+(aq) + 2 e– ⇌ Ti(s) E2→0 = -1.63 V
Ti3+(aq) + 3 e– ⇌ Ti(s) E3→0 = -1.37 V

We can derive an equation relating these electrode potentials:

3 x E3→0 = 1 x E3→2 + 2 x E2→0

This is derived from...

∆G3→0 = ∆G3→2 + ∆G2→0

...and because ∆G° = –zFE°

Considering the measured values for E3→0, E3→2 and E2→0...

3 x E3→0 = 3 x (-1.37) = -4.11 V
...but 1 x E3→2 + 2 x E2→0 = 1 x (-0.37) + 2 x (-1.63) = -3.63 V ≠ -4.11 V ...

...so there are discrepancies between some of the cited values. A Frost diagram will show the discrepancies clearly.


Table of standard electrode potentials

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Legend: (s) – solid; (l) – liquid; (g) – gas; (aq) – aqueous (default for all charged species); (Hg) – amalgam; bold – water electrolysis equations.

Element Half-reaction E°
(volt)		 Electrons
transferred		 Reference
Oxidant ⇌ Reductant
Sr Sr+ + e– ⇌ Sr(s) −4.101 1 [1]
Ca Ca+ + e– ⇌ Ca(s) −3.8 1 [1]
Th Th4+ + e– ⇌ Th3+ −3.6 1 [2]
Pr Pr3+ + e– ⇌ Pr2+ −3.1 1 Estimated[3]
N 3 N2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 HN3(aq) −3.09 2 [4][5]
Li Li+ + e– ⇌ Li(s) −3.0401 1 [5][6]: 153 
N N2(g) + 4 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ 2 NH2OH(aq) + 2  OH− −3.04 2 [4]
Cs Cs+ + e– ⇌ Cs(s) −3.026 1 [5]
Ca Ca(OH)2 + 2 e– ⇌ Ca(s) + 2  OH− −3.02 2 [1]
Er Er3+ + e– ⇌ Er2+ −3 1 [1]
Ba Ba(OH)2 + 2 e– ⇌ Ba(s) + 2  OH− −2.99 2 [1]
Rb Rb+ + e– ⇌ Rb(s) −2.98 1 [5]
K K+ + e– ⇌ K(s) −2.931 1 [5]
Ba Ba2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ba(s) −2.912 2 [5]
La La(OH)3(s) + 3 e– ⇌ La(s) + 3  OH− −2.9 3 [5]
Fr Fr+ + e– ⇌ Fr(s) −2.9 1 [1]
Sr Sr2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sr(s) −2.899 2 [5]
Sr Sr(OH)2 + 2 e– ⇌ Sr(s) + 2  OH− −2.88 2 [1]
Ca Ca2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ca(s) −2.868 2 [5][6]: 153 
Li Li+ + C6(s) + e– ⇌ LiC6(s) −2.84 1 [5]
Eu Eu2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Eu(s) −2.812 2 [5]
Ra Ra2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ra(s) −2.8 2 [5]
Ho Ho3+ + e– ⇌ Ho2+ −2.8 1 [1]
Bk Bk3+ + e– ⇌ Bk2+ −2.8 1 [1]
Yb Yb2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Yb(s) −2.76 2 [1]
Na Na+ + e– ⇌ Na(s) −2.71 1 [5][7]
Mg Mg+ + e– ⇌ Mg(s) −2.7 1 [1]
Nd Nd3+ + e– ⇌ Nd2+ −2.7 1 [1]
Mg Mg(OH)2 + 2 e– ⇌ Mg(s) + 2  OH− −2.69 2 [1]
Sm Sm2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sm(s) −2.68 2 [1]
Be Be2O32− + 3 H2O + 4 e– ⇌ 2 Be(s) + 6  OH− −2.63 4 [1]
Pm Pm3+ + e– ⇌ Pm2+ −2.6 1 [1]
Dy Dy3+ + e– ⇌ Dy2+ −2.6 1 [1]
No No2+ + 2 e– ⇌ No(s) −2.5 2 [1]
Hf HfO(OH)2 + H2O + 4 e– ⇌ Hf(s) + 4  OH− −2.5 4 [1]
Th Th(OH)4 + 4 e– ⇌ Th(s) + 4  OH− −2.48 4 [1]
Md Md2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Md(s) −2.4 2 [1]
Tm Tm2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Tm(s) −2.4 2 [1]
La La3+ + 3 e– ⇌ La(s) −2.379 3 [5]
Y Y3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Y(s) −2.372 3 [5]
Mg Mg2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Mg(s) −2.372 2 [5]
Sc ScF3(aq) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ Sc(s) + 3 HF(aq) −2.37 3 [6]: 792 
Zr ZrO(OH)2(s) + H2O + 4 e– ⇌ Zr(s) + 4  OH− −2.36 4 [5]
Pr Pr3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Pr(s) −2.353 3 [1]
Ce Ce3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ce(s) −2.336 3 [1]
Er Er3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Er(s) −2.331 3 [1]
Ho Ho3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ho(s) −2.33 3 [1]
Al H2AlO3− + H2O + 3 e– ⇌ Al(s) + 4  OH− −2.33 3 [1]
Nd Nd3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Nd(s) −2.323 3 [1]
Tm Tm3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Tm(s) −2.319 3 [1]
Al Al(OH)3(s) + 3 e– ⇌ Al(s) + 3  OH− −2.31 3 [8]
Sm Sm3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Sm(s) −2.304 3 [1]
Fm Fm2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Fm(s) −2.3 2 [1]
Am Am3+ + e– ⇌ Am2+ −2.3 1 [1]
Dy Dy3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Dy(s) −2.295 3 [1]
Lu Lu3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Lu(s) −2.28 3 [1]
Sc ScF2+ + 2  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ Sc(s) + 2 HF(l) −2.28 3 [6]: 792 
Tb Tb3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Tb(s) −2.28 3 [1]
Gd Gd3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Gd(s) −2.279 3 [1]
H H2(g) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 H− −2.23 2 [1]
Es Es2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Es(s) −2.23 2 [1]
Pm Pm2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pm(s) −2.2 2 [1]
Tm Tm3+ + e– ⇌ Tm2+ −2.2 1 [1]
Dy Dy2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Dy(s) −2.2 2 [1]
Ac Ac3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ac(s) −2.2 3 [1]
Yb Yb3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Yb(s) −2.19 3 [1]
Cf Cf2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Cf(s) −2.12 2 [1]
Nd Nd2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Nd(s) −2.1 2 [1]
Ho Ho2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ho(s) −2.1 2 [1]
Sc Sc3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Sc(s) −2.077 3 [9]
Al AlF63− + 3 e– ⇌ Al(s) + 6 F− −2.069 3 [1]
Cm Cm3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Cm(s) −2.04 3 [1]
Pu Pu3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Pu(s) −2.031 3 [1]
Pr Pr2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pr(s) −2 2 [1]
Er Er2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Er(s) −2 2 [1]
Eu Eu3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Eu(s) −1.991 3 [1]
Lr Lr3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Lr(s) −1.96 3 [1]
Cf Cf3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Cf(s) −1.94 3 [1]
Es Es3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Es(s) −1.91 3 [1]
Pa Pa4+ + e– ⇌ Pa3+ −1.9 1 [1]
Am Am2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Am(s) −1.9 2 [1]
Th Th4+ + 4 e– ⇌ Th(s) −1.899 4 [1]
Fm Fm3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Fm(s) −1.89 3 [1]
N N2(g) + 2 H2O + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 NH3OH+ −1.87 2 [6]: 789 
Np Np3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Np(s) −1.856 3 [1]
Be Be2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Be(s) −1.847 2 [1]
P H2PO2− + e– ⇌ P(s) + 2  OH− −1.82 1 [1]
U U3+ + 3 e– ⇌ U(s) −1.798 3 [1]
Sr Sr2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sr(Hg) −1.793 2 [1]
B H2BO3− + H2O + 3 e– ⇌ B(s) + 4  OH− −1.79 3 [1]
Th ThO2 + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Th(s) + 2 H2O −1.789 4 [1]
Hf HfO2+ + 2  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Hf(s) + H2O −1.724 4 [1]
P HPO32− + 2 H2O + 3 e– ⇌ P(s) + 5  OH− −1.71 3 [1]
Si SiO32− + 3 H2O + 4 e– ⇌ Si(s) + 6  OH− −1.697 4 [1]
Al Al3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Al(s) −1.662 3 [1]
Ti Ti2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ti(s) −1.63 2 [7]
Zr ZrO2(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Zr(s) + 2 H2O −1.553 4 [10]
Zr Zr4+ + 4 e– ⇌ Zr(s) −1.45 4 [10]
Ti Ti3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ti(s) −1.37 3 [11]
Ti TiO(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ti(s) + H2O −1.31 2 [6]: 792 
B [B(OH)4]− + 4 H2O + 8 e– ⇌ BH4− + 8  OH− −1.24 8 [6]: 788 
Ti Ti2O3(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 TiO(s) + H2O −1.23 2 [6]: 792 
Ga [Ga(OH)4]− + 3 e– ⇌ Ga(s) + 3  OH− −1.22 3 [6]: 788 
Zn [Zn(OH)4]2−) + 2 e– ⇌ Zn(s) + 4  OH− −1.199 2 [10]
Mn Mn2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Mn(s) −1.185 2 [10]
Fe [Fe(CN)6]4− + 6  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Fe(s) + 6 HCN(aq) −1.16 2 [12]
C C(s) + 3 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ CH3OH(l) + 2  OH− −1.148 2 [6]: 788 
Cr [Cr(CN)6]3− + e– ⇌ [Cr(CN)6]4− −1.143 1 [6]: 793 
Te Te(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Te2− −1.143 2 [13]
V V2+ + 2 e– ⇌ V(s) −1.13 2 [13]
Nb Nb3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Nb(s) −1.099 3 [8]
Sn Sn(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ SnH4(g) −1.07 4
Po Po(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Po2− −1.021 2 [14]
Cr [Cr(edta)(H2O)]− + e– ⇌ [Cr(edta)(H2O)]2− −0.99 1 [6]: 793 
P 2 H3PO4(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ (H2PO3)2(aq) + H2O −0.933 2 [6]: 789 
C CO32− + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HCO2− + H2O −0.93 2 [6]: 788 
Ti TiO2+ + 2  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Ti(s) + H2O −0.93 4
Si SiO2(quartz) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Si(s) + 2 H2O −0.909 4 [6]: 788 
Cr Cr2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Cr(s) −0.9 2 [6]: 793 
B B(OH)3(aq) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ B(s) + 3 H2O −0.89 3 [6]: 788 
Fe Fe(OH)2(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Fe(s) + 2  OH− −0.89 2 [12]
Fe Fe2O3(s) + 3 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Fe(OH)2(s) + 2  OH− −0.86 2 [12]
H 2 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ H2(g) + 2  OH− −0.8277 2 [10]
Bi Bi(s) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ BiH3 −0.8 3 [10]
Zn Zn2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Zn(Hg) −0.7628 2 [10]
Zn Zn2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Zn(s) −0.7618 2 [10]
Ta Ta2O5(s) + 10  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ 2 Ta(s) + 5 H2O −0.75 10
Cr Cr3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Cr(s) −0.74 3 [7]
Te 2 Te(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Te22− −0.74 2 [6]: 790 
Ni Ni(OH)2(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Ni(s) + 2  OH− −0.72 2 [1]
Nb Nb2O5(s) + 10  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ 2 Nb(s) + 5 H2O −0.7 10 [6]: 793 
Ag Ag2S(s) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Ag(s) + S2− −0.69 2
Te Te22− + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 H2Te(g) −0.64 2 [6]: 790 
Sb [Sb(OH)4]− + 3 e– ⇌ Sb(s) + 4  OH− −0.639 3 [6]: 789 
Au [Au(CN)2]− + e– ⇌ Au(s) + 2 CN− −0.6 1
Ta Ta3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ta(s) −0.6 3 [8]
Pb PbO(s) + H2O + 2 e– ⇌ Pb(s) + 2  OH− −0.580 2 [8]
Ti 2 TiO2(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ti2O3(s) + H2O −0.56 2 [6]: 792 
Ga Ga3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Ga(s) −0.549 3 [8]
U U4+ + e– ⇌ U3+ −0.52 1 [15]
P H3PO2(aq) +  H+ + e– ⇌ P(white)[note 1] + 2 H2O −0.508 1 [10]
P H3PO3(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H3PO2(aq) + H2O −0.499 2 [10]
Ni NiO2(s) + 2 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ Ni(OH)2(s) + 2  OH− −0.49 2 [1]
Sb [Sb(OH)6]− + 2 e– ⇌ [Sb(OH)4]− + 2  OH− −0.465 2 [6]: 789 
P H3PO3(aq) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ P(red)[note 1] + 3 H2O −0.454 3 [10]
Bi Bi2O3(s) + 3 H2O + 6 e– ⇌ Bi(s) + 6  OH− −0.452 6 [6]: 789 
Ta TaF72− + 7  H+ + 5 e– ⇌ Ta(s) + 7 HF(l) −0.45 5 [6]: 793 
In In3+ + 2 e– ⇌ In+ −0.444 2 [6]: 788 
Cu [Cu(CN)2]− + e– ⇌ Cu(s) + 2 CN− −0.44 1 [13]
Fe Fe2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Fe(s) −0.44 2 [7]
C 2 CO2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HOOCCOOH(aq) −0.43 2
Cr Cr3+ + e– ⇌ Cr2+ −0.407 1 [8]
Cd Cd2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Cd(s) −0.4 2 [8]
Ti Ti3+ + e– ⇌ Ti2+ −0.37 1 [6]: 792 
Cu Cu2O(s) + H2O + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Cu(s) + 2  OH− −0.36 2 [10]
Pb PbSO4(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Pb(s) + SO42− −0.3588 2 [10]
Pb PbSO4(s) + 2 e– ⇌ Pb(Hg) + SO42− −0.3505 2 [10]
Eu Eu3+ + e– ⇌ Eu2+ −0.35 1 [15]
In In3+ + 3 e– ⇌ In(s) −0.34 3 [13]
Tl Tl+ + e– ⇌ Tl(s) −0.34 1 [13]
Ge Ge(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ GeH4(g) −0.29 4
Co Co2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Co(s) −0.28 2 [10]
P H3PO4(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H3PO3(aq) + H2O −0.276 2 [10]
N N2(g) + 8  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ 2 NH4+ 0.27 6 [16]
V V3+ + e– ⇌ V2+ −0.26 1 [7]
Ni Ni2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ni(s) −0.257 2 [8]
S 2 HSO4− + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ S2O62− + 2 H2O −0.253 2 [6]: 790 
As As(s) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ AsH3(g) −0.23 3 [13]
N N2(g) + 5  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ N2H5+ −0.23 4 [6]: 789 
Ga Ga+ + e– ⇌ Ga(s) −0.2 1 [8]
Ag AgI(s) + e– ⇌ Ag(s) + I− −0.15224 1 [10]
Ge GeO2(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Ge(s) + 2 H2O −0.15 4 [16]
Mo MoO2(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Mo(s) + 2 H2O −0.15 4
Si Si(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ SiH4(g) −0.14 4
Sn Sn2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sn(s) −0.13 2
O O2(g) +  H+ + e– ⇌ HO(aq) −0.13 1
In In+ + e– ⇌ In(s) −0.126 1 [6]: 788 
Pb Pb2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pb(s) −0.126 2 [7]
W WO2(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ W(s) + 2 H2O −0.12 4
Ge GeO2(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ GeO(s) + H2O −0.118 2 [8]
P P(red) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ PH3(g) −0.111 3 [10]
C CO2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HCOOH(aq) −0.11 2
Se Se(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H2Se(g) −0.11 2 [6]: 790 
C CO2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ CO(g) + H2O −0.11 2
Sn α-SnO(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sn(s) + H2O −0.104 2 [6]: 788 
Cu [Cu(NH3)2]+ + e– ⇌ Cu(s) + 2 NH3(aq) −0.1 1 [13]
Nb Nb2O5(s) + 10  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ 2 Nb3+ + 5 H2O −0.1 4 [6]: 793 
W WO3(aq) + 6  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ W(s) + 3 H2O −0.09 6 [13]
Sn SnO2(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ α-SnO(s) + H2O −0.088 2 [6]: 788 
Fe Fe3O4(s) + 8  H+ + 8 e– ⇌ 3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O −0.085 8 [17]
V VOH2+ +  H+ + e– ⇌ V2+ + H2O −0.082 1 [6]: 793 
P P(white) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ PH3(g) −0.063 3 [10]
N N2O(g) + H2O + 6  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ 2 NH3OH+ −0.05 4 [6]: 789 
Fe Fe3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Fe(s) −0.04 3 [12]
C HCOOH(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HCHO(aq) + H2O −0.034 2 [6]: 788 
H 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H2(g) 0 2
Ag AgBr(s) + e– ⇌ Ag(s) + Br− 0.07133 1 [10]
S S4O62− + 2 e– ⇌ 2 S2O32− 0.08 2
N N2(g) + 2 H2O + 6  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ 2 NH4OH(aq) 0.092 6
Hg HgO(s) + H2O + 2 e– ⇌ Hg(l) + 2  OH− 0.0977 2
Cu [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + e– ⇌ [Cu(NH3)2]+ + 2 NH3(aq) 0.1 1 [13]
Ru [Ru(NH3)6]3+ + e– ⇌ [Ru(NH3)6]2+ 0.1 1 [15]
N N2H4(aq) + 4 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ 2 NH4+ + 4  OH− 0.11 2 [4]
Mo H2MoO4(aq) + 6  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ Mo(s) + 4 H2O 0.11 6
Ge Ge4+ + 4 e– ⇌ Ge(s) 0.12 4
C C(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ CH4(g) 0.13 4 [13]
C HCHO(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ CH3OH(aq) 0.13 2
S S(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H2S(g) 0.144 2 [6]: 790 
Sb Sb2O3(s) + 6  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ 2 Sb(s) + 3 H2O 0.15 6 [6]: 789 
Sn Sn4+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sn2+ 0.151 2 [8]
S HSO4− + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ SO2(aq) + 2 H2O 0.158 2 [6]: 790 
Cu Cu2+ + e– ⇌ Cu+ 0.159 1 [13]
U UO22+ + e– ⇌ UO2+ 0.163 1 [15]
S SO42− + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ SO2(aq) + 2 H2O 0.17 2
Ti TiO2+ + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ Ti3+ + H2O 0.19 1
Sb SbO+ + 2  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ Sb(s) + H2O 0.2 3
Fe 3 Fe2O3(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Fe3O4(s) + H2O 0.22 2 [18]: p.100 
Ag AgCl(s) + e– ⇌ Ag(s) + Cl− 0.22233 1 [10]
As H3AsO3(aq) + 3  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ As(s) + 3 H2O 0.24 3 [6]: 789 
Ru Ru3+ + e– ⇌ Ru2+ 0.249 1 [19]
Pb PbO2(s) + H2O + 2 e– ⇌ α-PbO(s) + 2  OH− 0.254 2 [6]: 788 
Ge GeO(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ge(s) + H2O 0.26 2
Hg Hg2Cl2(s) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl− 0.27 2 [16]
U UO2+ + 4  H+ + e– ⇌ U4+ + 2 H2O 0.273 1 [15]
At At + e– ⇌ At− 0.3 1 [20]
Bi Bi3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Bi(s) 0.308 3 [10]
C 2 HCNO + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ (CN)2 + 2 H2O 0.330 2 [8]
Cu Cu2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Cu(s) 0.337 2 [13]
V VO2+ + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ V3+ + H2O 0.337 1 [6]: 793 
Sb Sb2O4(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sb2O3(s) + H2O 0.342 2 [6]: 789 
At At+ + 2 e– ⇌ At− 0.36 2 [21]
Fe [Fe(CN)6]3− + e– ⇌ [Fe(CN)6]4− 0.3704 1 [22]
C (CN)2 + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 HCN 0.373 2 [8]
P (H2PO3)2(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 H3PO3 0.38 2 [6]: 789 
S 2 SO2(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ S2O32− + H2O 0.4 2 [6]: 790 
O O2(g) + 2 H2O + 4 e– ⇌ 4  OH− 0.401 4 [7]
Mo H2MoO4 + 6  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ Mo3+ + 4 H2O 0.43 3
Ru Ru2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ru(s) 0.455 2 [19]
V VO(OH)+ + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ VOH2+ + H2O 0.481 1 [6]: 793 
Re Re3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Re(s) 0.5 3 [3]
C CH3OH(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ CH4(g) + H2O 0.5 2
S SO2(aq) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ S(s) + 2 H2O 0.5 4 [6]: 790 
S 4 SO2(aq) + 4  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ S4O62− + 2 H2O 0.51 6 [16]
Cu Cu+ + e– ⇌ Cu(s) 0.52 1 [13]
C CO(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ C(s) + H2O 0.52 2 [6]: 788 
I I3− + 2 e– ⇌ 3 I− 0.53 2 [7]
Te TeO2(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Te(s) + 2 H2O 0.53 4 [6]: 790 
Cu Cu2+ + Cl− + e– ⇌ CuCl(s) 0.54 1 [16]
I I2(s) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 I− 0.54 2 [7]
Au AuI4− + 3 e– ⇌ Au(s) + 4 I− 0.56 3
As H3AsO4(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H3AsO3(aq) + H2O 0.56 2 [6]: 789 
S S2O62− + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 H2SO3 0.569 2 [6]: 790 
Au AuI2− + e– ⇌ Au(s) + 2 I− 0.58 1
Mn MnO4− + 2 H2O + 3 e– ⇌ MnO2(s) + 4  OH− 0.595 3 [1]
S S2O32− + 6  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ 2 S(s) + 3 H2O 0.6 4 [6]: 790 
Fe Fc+ + e– ⇌ Fc(s) 0.63 1 Substantial literature variation[23]
Mo H2MoO4(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ MoO2(s) + 2 H2O 0.65 2
N HN3(aq) + 11  H+ + 8 e– ⇌ 3 NH4+ 0.69 8 [16]
O O2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H2O2(aq) 0.695 2 [8]
Sb Sb2O5(s) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Sb2O3(s) + 2 H2O 0.699 4 [6]: 789 
C + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 0.6992 2 [10]
V H2V10O284− + 24  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ 10 VO(OH)+ + 8 H2O 0.723 10 [6]: 793 
Pt PtCl62− + 2 e– ⇌ PtCl42− + 2 Cl− 0.726 2 [15]
Fe Fe2O3(s) + 6  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Fe2+ + 3 H2O 0.728 2 [18]: p.100 
Se H2SeO3(aq) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Se(s) + 3 H2O 0.74 4 [8]
At AtO+ + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ At+ + H2O 0.74 2 [21]
Tl Tl3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Tl(s) 0.741 3 [8]
No No3+ + e– ⇌ No2+ 0.75 1 [24]
Pt PtCl42− + 2 e– ⇌ Pt(s) + 4 Cl− 0.758 2 [15]
Br BrO− + H2O + 2 e– ⇌ Br− + 2  OH− 0.76 2 [6]: 791 
Po Po4+ + 4 e– ⇌ Po(s) 0.76 4 [8]
S (SCN)2 + 2 e– ⇌ 2 SCN− 0.769 2 [25][8]
Fe Fe3+ + e– ⇌ Fe2+ 0.771 1 [8]
Hg Hg22+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Hg(l) 0.7973 2 [8]
Ag Ag+ + e– ⇌ Ag(s) 0.7996 1 [10]
N 2 NO3− + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ N2O4(g) + 2 H2O 0.803 2 [6]: 789 
Fe 2 FeO42− + 5 H2O + 6 e– ⇌ Fe2O3(s) + 10  OH− 0.81 6 [12]
Au AuBr4− + 3 e– ⇌ Au(s) + 4 Br− 0.85 3
Hg Hg2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Hg(l) 0.85 2
Ir IrCl62− + e– ⇌ IrCl63− 0.87 1 [6]: 153 
Mn MnO4− +  H+ + e– ⇌ HMnO4− 0.9 1
Po Po4+ + 2 e– ⇌ Po2+ 0.9 2 [8]
Hg 2 Hg2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Hg22+ 0.91 2 [13]
Pd Pd2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pd(s) 0.915 2 [15]
Au AuCl4− + 3 e– ⇌ Au(s) + 4 Cl− 0.93 3
N NO3− + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HNO2(aq) 0.94 2 [6]: 789 
Mn MnO2(s) + 4  H+ + e– ⇌ Mn3+ + 2 H2O 0.95 1
N NO3− + 4  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ NO(g) + 2 H2O 0.958 3 [7]
Au AuBr2− + e– ⇌ Au(s) + 2 Br− 0.96 1
Fe Fe3O4(s) + 8  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 3 Fe2+ + 4 H2O 0.98 2 [18]: p.100 
Xe HXeO63− + 2 H2O + 2 e– ⇌ HXeO4− + 4  OH− 0.99 2 [6]: 792 [26]
N HNO2(aq) +  H+ + e– ⇌ NO(g) + H2O 0.996 1 [6]: 789 
At HAtO +  H+ + e– ⇌ At + H2O 1.0 1 [20]
V VO2+ + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ VO2+ + H2O 1 1 [27]
Te H6TeO6(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ TeO2(s) + 4 H2O 1.02 2 [27]
N NO2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ NO(g) + H2O 1.03 2 [16]
Br Br3− + 2 e– ⇌ 3 Br− 1.05 2 [16]
Sb Sb2O5(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Sb2O4(s) + H2O 1.055 2 [6]: 789 
I ICl2− + e– ⇌ 2 Cl− + I(s) 1.06 1 [16]
Br Br2(l) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Br− 1.066 2 [10]
N N2O4(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 HNO2 1.07 2 [6]: 789 
Br Br2(aq) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Br− 1.0873 2 [10]
Ru RuO2 + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ru2+ + 2 H2O 1.120 2 [19]
Cu Cu2+ + 2 CN− + e– ⇌ Cu(CN)2− 1.12 1 [13]
I IO3− + 5  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ HIO(aq) + 2 H2O 1.13 4 [6]: 791 
O H2O2(aq) +  H+ + e– ⇌ H2O + HO• 1.14 1 [6]: 790 
Au AuCl2− + e– ⇌ Au(s) + 2 Cl− 1.15 1
Se HSeO4− + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ H2SeO3(aq) + H2O 1.15 2 [6]: 790 
Ag Ag2O(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Ag(s) + H2O 1.17 2
Cl ClO3− + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ ClO2(g) + H2O 1.175 1 [6]: 791 
Xe HXeO63− + 5 H2O + 8 e– ⇌ Xe(g) + 11  OH− 1.18 8 [26]
Pt Pt2+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pt(s) 1.188 2 [15]
Cl ClO2(g) +  H+ + e– ⇌ HClO2(aq) 1.19 1 [28]
I 2 IO3− + 12  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ I2(s) + 6 H2O 1.2 10 [16]
Mn MnO2(s) + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Mn2+ + 2 H2O 1.224 2 [10]
O O2(g) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ 2 H2O 1.229 4 [7]
N N2H5+ + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 NH4+ 1.28 2 [6]: 789 
Cl ClO4− + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ ClO3− + H2O 1.23 2 [29]
Ru [Ru(bipy)3]3+ + e– ⇌ [Ru(bipy)3]2+ 1.24 1 [1]
Xe HXeO4− + 3 H2O + 6 e– ⇌ Xe(g) + 7  OH− 1.24 6 [6]: 792 [26]
N 2 NO3− + 12  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ N2(g) + 6 H2O 1.25 10 [6]: 789 
Tl Tl3+ + 2 e– ⇌ Tl+ 1.25 2 [6]: 788 
N 2 HNO2(aq) + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ N2O(g) + 3 H2O 1.297 4 [6]: 789 
Cr Cr2O72− + 14  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O 1.33 6 [4]: 1005 
N NH3OH+ + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ NH4+ + H2O 1.35 2 [6]: 789 
Cl Cl2(g) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 Cl− 1.36 2 [7]
Ru RuO4− + 8  H+ + 5 e– ⇌ Ru2+ + 4 H2O 1.368 5 [19]
Ru RuO4 + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ RuO2 + 2 H2O 1.387 4 [19]
Co CoO2(s) + 4  H+ + e– ⇌ Co3+ + 2 H2O 1.42 1
N 2 NH3OH+ +  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ N2H5+ + 2 H2O 1.42 2 [4]
I 2 HIO(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ I2(s) + 2 H2O 1.44 2 [6]: 791 
Br BrO3− + 5  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ HBrO(aq) + 2 H2O 1.447 4 [6]: 791 
Pb β−PbO2(s) + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pb2+ + 2 H2O 1.46 2 [13]
Pb α−PbO2(s) + 4  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pb2+ + 2 H2O 1.468 2 [13]
Br 2 BrO3− + 12  H+ + 10 e– ⇌ Br2(l) + 6 H2O 1.48 10
At HAtO3 + 4  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ HAtO + 2 H2O 1.5 4 [20]
Mn MnO4− + 8  H+ + 5 e– ⇌ Mn2+ + 4 H2O 1.51 5 [16]
O HO2• +  H+ + e– ⇌ H2O2(aq) 1.51 1
Au Au3+ + 3 e– ⇌ Au(s) 1.52 3
Ru RuO42− + 8  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ Ru2+ + 4 H2O 1.563 4 [19]
N 2 NO(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ N2O(g) + H2O 1.59 2 [6]: 789 
Ni NiO2(s) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Ni2+ + 2  OH− 1.59 2
Ce Ce4+ + e– ⇌ Ce3+ 1.61 1
Cl 2 HClO(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Cl2(g) + 2 H2O 1.63 2 [28]
I IO4− + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ IO3− + H2O 1.64 2 [29]
Ag Ag2O3(s) + 6  H+ + 4 e– ⇌ 2 Ag+ + 3 H2O 1.67 4
Cl HClO2(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ HClO(aq) + H2O 1.67 2 [28]
Pb Pb4+ + 2 e– ⇌ Pb2+ 1.69 2 [13]
Mn MnO4− + 4  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ MnO2(s) + 2 H2O 1.7 3 [16]
Br BrO4− + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ BrO3− + H2O 1.74 2 [29]
Ag AgO(s) + 2  H+ + e– ⇌ Ag+ + H2O 1.77 1
N N2O(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ N2(g) + H2O 1.77 2 [6]: 789 
O H2O2(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 H2O 1.78 2 [28]
Au Au+ + e– ⇌ Au(s) 1.83 1 [13]
Co Co3+ + e– ⇌ Co2+ 1.92 1 [8]
Ag Ag2+ + e– ⇌ Ag+ 1.98 1 [13]
O S2O82− + 2 e– ⇌ 2 SO42− 2.01 2 [10]
O O3(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ O2(g) + H2O 2.075 2 [15]
Mn HMnO4− + 3  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ MnO2(s) + 2 H2O 2.09 2
Xe XeO3(aq) + 6  H+ + 6 e– ⇌ Xe(g) + 3 H2O 2.12 6 [6]: 792 [26]
Xe H4XeO6(aq) + 8  H+ + 8 e– ⇌ Xe(g) + 6 H2O 2.18 8 [6]: 792 [26]
Fe FeO42− + 8  H+ + 3 e– ⇌ Fe3+ + 4 H2O 2.2 3 [30]
Xe XeF2(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ Xe(g) + 2 HF(aq) 2.32 2 [26][28]
O HO• +  H+ + e– ⇌ H2O 2.38 1 [6]: 790 
Xe H4XeO6(aq) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ XeO3(aq) + 3 H2O 2.42 2 [26][6]: 792 
F F2(g) + 2 e– ⇌ 2 F− 2.87 2 [6]: 153 [7][13]
Cm Cm2+ + e– ⇌ Cm3+ 3.0 1 Estimated[3]
F F2(g) + 2  H+ + 2 e– ⇌ 2 HF(aq) 3.077 2 [3]
Tb Tb4+ + e– ⇌ Tb3+ 3.1 1 Estimated[3]
Pr Pr4+ + e– ⇌ Pr3+ 3.2 1 Estimated[3]
Kr KrF2(aq) + 2 e– ⇌ Kr(g) + 2 F− 3.27 2 Estimated[31]

See also

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Notes

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  1. 1 2 Not specified in the indicated reference, but assumed due to the difference between the value −0.454 and that computed by (2×(−0.499) + (−0.508))/3 = −0.502, exactly matching the difference between the values for white (−0.063) and red (−0.111) phosphorus in equilibrium with PH3.

References

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  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 Lide, David R., ed. (2006). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0487-3.
  2. ↑ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bratsch, Stephen G. (July 29, 1988) [1 March 1988]. "Standard electrode potentials and temperature coefficients in water at 298.15 K" (PDF). Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data. 18 (1). American Institute of Physics (published 1989): 1–21. Bibcode:1989JPCRD..18....1B. doi:10.1063/1.555839 – via NIST.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. doi:10.1016/C2009-0-30414-6. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Vanýsek, Petr (2011). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80–9. ISBN 978-1-4398-5512-6.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 Atkins, Peter; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Weller, Mark; Armstrong, Fraser; Hagerman, Michael (2010). Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-42-921820-7.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Atkins, Peter W. (1997). Physical Chemistry (6th ed.). W.H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716734659.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Petr Vanysek. "Electrochemical series" (PDF). depa.fquim.unam.mx. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-09-16.
  9. ↑ David R. Lide, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005, http://www.hbcpnetbase.com Archived 2017-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Vanýsek, Petr (2012). "Electrochemical Series". In Haynes, William M. (ed.). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (93rd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 5–80. ISBN 9781439880494.
  11. ↑ Aylward, Gordon; Findlay, Tristan (2008). SI Chemical Data (6th ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 "compounds information". Iron. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Bard, Allen J.; Parsons, Roger; Jordan, Joseph (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solution. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-7291-8.
  14. ↑ Brown, Susan A.; Brown, Paul L. (2020). "The pH-potential diagram for polonium". The Aqueous Chemistry of Polonium and the Practical Application of its Thermochemistry. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819308-2.00004-8. ISBN 978-0-12-819308-2. S2CID 213141476.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. (2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 9781118312803.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Lee, J. L. (1983) [1977]. A New Concise Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). London / Wokingham, Berkshire: English Language Book Society & Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK). p. 107. ISBN 0-442-30179-0. OL 4079768W – via the Internet Archive.
  17. ↑ Pourbaix, Marcel (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions. Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels: NACE International. OCLC 475102548.
  18. 1 2 3 Pang, Suh Cem; Chin, Suk Fun; Anderson, Marc A. (July 2007). "Redox equilibria of iron oxides in aqueous-based magnetite dispersions: Effect of pH and redox potential". J. Colloid Interface Sci. 311 (1): 94–101. Bibcode:2007JCIS..311...94P. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2007.02.058. PMID 17395194. Retrieved 2017-03-26.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1077
  20. 1 2 3 Lavrukhina, Avgusta Konstantinovna; Pozdni︠a︡kov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1970). Analytical chemistry of technetium, promethium, astatine and francium. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor-Humphrey Science Publishers. p. 237. ISBN 0-250-39923-7. OCLC 186926.
  21. 1 2 Champion, J.; Alliot, C.; Renault, E.; Mokili, B. M.; Chérel, M.; Galland, N.; Montavon, G. (2009-12-16). "Astatine Standard Redox Potentials and Speciation in Acidic Medium" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 114 (1). American Chemical Society (ACS): 576–582. doi:10.1021/jp9077008. ISSN 1089-5639. PMID 20014840. S2CID 15738065.
  22. ↑ Rock, Peter A. (February 1966). "The Standard Oxidation Potential of the Ferrocyanide-Ferricyanide Electrode at 25° and the Entropy of Ferrocyanide Ion". The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 70 (2): 576–580. doi:10.1021/j100874a042. ISSN 0022-3654.
  23. ↑ Pavlishchuk, Vitaly V.; Addison, Anthony W. (January 2000). "Conversion constants for redox potentials measured versus different reference electrodes in acetonitrile solutions at 25°C". Inorganica Chimica Acta. 298 (1): 97–102. doi:10.1016/S0020-1693(99)00407-7.
  24. ↑ Toyoshima, A.; Kasamatsu, Y.; Tsukada, K.; Asai, M.; Kitatsuji, Y.; Ishii, Y.; Toume, H.; Nishinaka, I.; Haba, H.; Ooe, K.; Sato, W.; Shinohara, A.; Akiyama, K.; Nagame, Y. (8 July 2009). "Oxidation of element 102, nobelium, with flow electrolytic column chromatography on an atom-at-a-time scale". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (26): 9180–1. Bibcode:2009JAChS.131.9180T. doi:10.1021/ja9030038. PMID 19514720.
  25. ↑ Kaufmann, H. P. (1925). "Das freie Rhodan und seine Anwendung in der Maßanalyse. Eine neue Kennzahl der Fette" [Unbound rhodanium and its application to elemental analysis: A new measurement technique for fats]. Archiv der Pharmazie und Berichte der Deutschen Pharmazeutischen Gesellschaft (in German). 263 (41–47): 675–721. doi:10.1002/ardp.19252634104 – via HathiTrust.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "compounds information". Xenon. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements.
  27. 1 2 Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-19957-5.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Ghosh, Abhik; Berg, Steffen (2014). Arrow Pushing in Inorganic Chemistry: A logical approach to the chemistry of the main-group elements. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-118-17398-5.
  29. 1 2 3 Appelman, Evan H. (1973-04-01). "Nonexistent compounds. Two case histories". Accounts of Chemical Research. 6 (4). American Chemical Society (ACS): 113–117. doi:10.1021/ar50064a001. ISSN 0001-4842.
  30. ↑ Courtney, Arlene. "Oxidation Reduction Chemistry of the Elements". Ch 412 Advanced Inorganic Chemistry: Reading Materials. Western Oregon University.
  31. ↑ Leszczyński, P.J.; Grochala, W. (2013). "Strong Cationic Oxidizers: Thermal Decomposition, Electronic Structure and Magnetism of Their Compounds" (PDF). Acta Chim. Slov. 60 (3): 455–470. PMID 24169699. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
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