Jump to content

Garden city movement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Garden City Movement)
Ebenezer Howard's three magnets diagram, which addressed the question, "Where will the people go?", with three choices being: "Town", "Country", or "Town-Country".
Ebenezer Howard's "Diagram illustrating correct principle of a city's growth"
Ebenezer Howard's "Diagram illustrating correct principle of a city's growth"

The garden city movement is a 20th-century urban planning movement that promoted satellite communities surrounding a central city, separated by green belts. These garden cities would contain proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. Ebenezer Howard first posited the idea in 1898 as a way to capture the primary benefits of the countryside and the city while avoiding the disadvantages presented by both. In the early 20th century, Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City were built near London according to Howard's concept, and many other garden cities inspired by his model have since been built all over the world.[1]

History

[edit source]

Conception

[edit source]

According to urban theorist Lewis Mumford, Howard's ideas had an antecedent in Leonardo da Vinci's proposal to separate Milan into ten smaller cities to relieve congestion and pestilence.[2]

Howard's diagram illustrating the Garden City concept
Howard's diagram illustrating the Garden City concept

Inspired by the utopian novel Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy, and Henry George's work Progress and Poverty, Howard published the book To-morrow: a Peaceful Path to Real Reform in 1898 (reissued in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-morrow). His idealised garden city would house 32,000 people on a site of 9,000 acres (3,600 ha). Howard's diagrams present such a city in a concentric pattern with open spaces, public parks, and six radial boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. He makes it clear that the actual site planning should be left to experts. The garden city would be self-sufficient, and when it reached full population, another would be developed nearby. Howard envisages a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of 58,000 people, linked by road and rail.[3] Howard's diagrams are quite similar to the urban planner and social reformer Adelheid von Poninska's suggestion of a "green ring" around cities a few decades earlier.[4]

The success of Howard's book provided him with the support necessary to pursue the opportunity to bring his vision to life. Howard believed that all people agreed that the overcrowding and deterioration of cities were one of the troubling issues of their time. He quotes several respected thinkers and their disdain for cities. Howard's garden city concept combines the town and country to provide the working class an alternative to working on farms or in "crowded, unhealthy cities".[5]

Howard envisions the garden city as a "third magnet" which will draw residents and small businesses from both the too-crowded city and the too-isolated countryside.[6]: 9  He theorizes that it would thus shield people from the social ills of rapid industrialization through population and density limits, strict land use controls, and shared ownership with collective management.[6]: 9 

First developments

[edit source]

To build a garden city, Howard needed money to buy land. He decided to get funding from "gentlemen of responsible position and undoubted probity and honour".[7] He founded the Garden City Association (later known as the Town and Country Planning Association or TCPA), which created First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the garden city of Letchworth.[8] However, these donors would collect interest on their investment if the garden city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process, "philanthropic land speculation".[9] Howard tried to include working class cooperative organisations, which included over two million members, but could not win their financial support.[10] Because he had to rely only on the wealthy investors of First Garden City, Howard had to make concessions to his plan, such as eliminating the cooperative ownership scheme with no landlords, short-term rent increases, and hiring architects who did not agree with his rigid design plans.[11]

In 1904, Raymond Unwin, a noted architect and town planner, and his partner Barry Parker won the competition run by First Garden City Ltd. to plan Letchworth, an area 34 miles outside London.[12] Unwin and Parker planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate with a large agricultural green belt surrounding the town. They shared Howard's view that the working class deserved better, more affordable housing. However, the architects ignored Howard's symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more 'organic' design.[13]

Letchworth slowly attracted more residents because it brought in manufacturers through low taxes, low rents, and more space.[14] Despite Howard's best efforts, the home prices in this garden city could not remain affordable for blue-collar workers to live in. The population comprised mostly skilled middle class workers. After a decade, the First Garden City became profitable and started paying dividends to its investors.[15] Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not immediately inspire government investment into the next line of garden cities.

In reference to the lack of government support for garden cities, Frederic James Osborn, a colleague of Howard and his eventual successor at the Garden City Association, recalled Howard saying, "The only way to get anything done is to do it yourself."[16] Likely in frustration, Howard bought land at Welwyn to house the second garden city in 1919.[17] The purchase was at auction, with money Howard desperately and successfully borrowed from friends. The Welwyn Garden City Corporation was formed to oversee the construction. But Welwyn did not become self-sustaining because it was only 20 miles from London.[18]

Even into the 1930s, Letchworth and Welwyn remained the only garden cities in the United Kingdom. However, the movement did succeed in emphasizing the need for urban planning policies that eventually led to the new towns movement.[19]

Garden cities: the spread of an idea

[edit source]

Garden city principles greatly influenced the design of colonial and post-colonial capitals in the early 20th century. This is the case for New Delhi (designed as the capital of British India after World War I), of Canberra (capital of Australia established in 1913), and of Quezon City (established in 1939, capital of the Philippines from 1948 to 1976). Outside the British Empire, the ideas quickly spread as well.

Early examples

[edit source]

Africa

[edit source]

Asia

[edit source]
  • Vietnam. Da Lat, established 1907.

Europe

[edit source]
An attempt at a garden city: Zlín in Czechia (architect: František Lydie Gahura)
The Workers Academy in Kauniainen, the garden city of Finland[28]
  • Belgium. The garden city movement started early[29] but took roots in the 1910s, directly connected to industrial development, especially that of the coal mines.[30] Early examples are Tuinwijk Beringen-Mijn (1908), Tuinwijk van Zwartberg (1910), and Eisden-Tuinwijk (1911). After the First World War, there was a huge need for new housing, and the principles were widely applied. Social housing associations were created, often linked to political movements. In Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent, extensions of the cities were built.
  • Czechia. All industrial cities founded or reconstructed by the Bata Shoes company (Zlín, Svit, Partizánske) were influenced by the garden city concept.
  • Finland. Kauniainen is an early example, founded in 1906 by the corporation AB Grankulla. However, the most famous would be Tapiola.
  • France. The concept of garden city (cité jardin) was closely related to the concept of the 'workers city' (cité ouvrière).[31] All over the country settlements were established accordingly.
  • Germany. Along with the UK, Germany was at the forefront of the Garden Cities movement, which began in the late 19th century and was part of a broader discourse on social renewal.[32][33] Specific projects were typically the results of private initiatives.
  • Hungary. Wekerletelep, established 1908.
  • Poland. Komorów, Podkowa Leśna, Brwinów, and Milanówek are based on the garden-city concept.[34]
  • Netherlands. The concept was widely applied in different parts of the country, mainly as garden villages, such as Tuindorp Vreewijk, Hengelo, Tuindorp Oostzaan, and Tuindorp Watergraafsmeer. In most cases, private industrial companies took the initiative. The development continued on a bigger scale after the Second World War, now initiated and controlled by municipalities, with examples such as the Westelijke Tuinsteden.[35]
  • United Kingdom. Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City.
  • Ukraine. Nova Kakhovka.

North America

[edit source]

Oceania

[edit source]

South America

[edit source]

Criticisms

[edit source]

While garden cities were praised as an alternative to overcrowded, industrial cities and for greater sustainability, they were often criticized for damaging the economy, destroying the beauty of nature, and being inconvenient. According to A. Trystan Edwards, garden cities engendered desecration of the countryside by trying to recreate countryside suburbs that could spread on their own; however, this was not a feasible feat due to the limited space they had (except at their outermost edges).[45]

More recently, the environmental movement's embrace of urban density has offered an "implicit critique" of the garden city movement.[46] In this way, the critique of the concept resembles critiques of other suburbanization models. However, author Stephen Ward has argued that critics often do not adequately distinguish between true garden cities and more mundane dormitory city plans.[46]

It is often referred to as an urban design experiment, which is typified by failure due to the laneways used as common entries and exits to the houses, thereby helping to develop ghetto communities and encourage crime; it has ultimately triggered efforts to eliminate public housing areas similar to that designed in Radburn, New Jersey.[47]

When interviewed in 1998, Philip Cox (the architect responsible for introducing the design to public housing in New South Wales) was reported to have admitted with regards to an American-Radburn-designed estate in the suburb of Villawood, "everything that could go wrong in a society went wrong," and "it became the centre of drugs, it became the centre of violence and, eventually, the police refused to go into it. It was hell."[47]

Legacy

[edit source]

The concept of the garden city was adopted again in the UK after World War II, when the New Towns Act spurred the development of many new communities based on Howard's egalitarian ideas. It also affected town planning in other countries, such as Italy; the INA-Casa plan – a national public housing plan from the 1950s and '60s – designed several suburbs according to garden city principles: examples are found in many cities and towns of the country, such as the Isolotto suburb in Florence, Falchera in Turin, Harar in Milan, and Cesate Villaggio in Cesate (part of the Metropolitan City of Milan)

More recent applications can be found in different contexts across the world. In Bhutan's capital city Thimphu, for example, the new plan, following the Principles of Intelligent Urbanism, is an organic response to the fragile ecology. It uses sustainable concepts and is a contemporary response to the garden city concept. Epcot theme park in Bay Lake, Florida, took some influence from the garden city concept.[48] Singapore, a tropical country, has over time incorporated various facets of the garden city concept in its urban planning to make the country a unique city in a garden.[49] In the 1970s, the country started including concepts in its town plans to ensure that building codes and land use plans made adequate provisions for greenery and nature to become part of community development. In 1996, the National Parks Board was given the mandate to spearhead the development and maintenance of greenery and bring the island's green spaces and parks to the community.[50]

Contemporary town-planning charters like New Urbanism and Principles of Intelligent Urbanism originated with this movement. Today, there are many garden cities in the world, but most have devolved into dormitory suburbs, which are completely different from what Howard aimed to create.[citation needed]

In 2007, the Town and Country Planning Association marked its 108th anniversary by calling for garden city and garden suburb principles to be applied to the present new towns and eco-towns in the United Kingdom.[51] The campaign continued in 2013 with the publication in March of that year of "Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today - a guide for councils".[52] Also in 2013, Lord Simon Wolfson announced that he would award the Wolfson Economics Prize for the best ideas on how to create a garden city.[citation needed]

In 2014, the Letchworth Declaration[53] was published, which called for a body to accredit future garden cities in the UK. The declaration has a strong focus on the visible (architecture and layout) and the invisible (social, ownership, and governance) aspects of a settlement's architecture. One result was the creation of the New Garden Cities Alliance as a community interest company. It aims to be complementary to groups like the TCPA and it has adopted garden city principles as well as those from other groups, including those from Cabannes and Ross's booklet 21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow.[54][self-published source?]

New garden cities and towns

[edit source]

British Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne announced plans for a new garden city to be built at Ebbsfleet Valley, Kent, in early 2014, with a second also planned as an expansion of Bicester, Oxfordshire.[55][56] The United Kingdom government announced further plans for garden towns in 2015, supporting both the development of new communities in North Essex and support for sustainable and environmentally-friendly town development in Didcot, Oxfordshire.[57] A "Black Country Garden City" was announced in 2016 with plans to build 45,000 new homes in the West Midlands on brownfield sites.[58]

On 2 January 2017, the government announced plans for new garden villages, each with between 1,500 and 10,000 homes, and garden towns, each with more than 10,000 homes.[59] These smaller projects have been proposed due to opposition of "urban sprawl" in the garden city projects, as well as such quick expansion to small communities. The first wave of villages to be approved by ministers is to be located in:

The approved garden towns are to be located in:

Diagrams

[edit source]

Diagrams from the 1898 edition

[edit source]

Diagrams from the 1902 edition

[edit source]

"Den-en Toshi (Garden City)" Tokyo: Hakubunkan, 1907

[edit source]

Garden suburbs

[edit source]

The concept of garden cities is to produce relatively economically independent cities with short commute times and the preservation of the countryside. Garden suburbs arguably do the opposite. Garden suburbs are built on the outskirts of large cities and have no industrial sections. They are therefore dependent on reliable transport allowing workers to commute into the city.[60] Lewis Mumford, one of Howard's disciples, explained the difference as "The Garden City, as Howard defined it, is not a suburb but the antithesis of a suburb: not a rural retreat, but a more integrated foundation for an effective urban life."[61]

The concept of the garden suburb was familiar enough to English readers that the Leeds newspaper Star of Freedom could claim in 1851 that 'The city of Lassa (i.e. Lhasa) has no wall, but is surrounded by garden suburbs.'[62] However, the planned garden suburb emerged in the west in the late 19th century as a by-product of new types of transportation embraced by a newly prosperous merchant class. The first garden villages were built by English estate owners, who wanted to relocate or rebuild villages on their lands. It was in these cases that architects first began designing small houses. Early examples include Harewood and Milton Abbas. Major innovations that defined early garden suburbs and subsequent suburban town planning include linking villa-like homes with landscaped public spaces and roads.[63]

The planned garden suburb appears to have emerged in England, and the typology soon flowered elsewhere, as evidenced by examples from the second half of the 19th century in the United States. There were generally two garden-suburb typologies: the garden village and the garden enclave. The garden villages are spatially independent of the city but remain connected to it by railroads, streetcars, and, later, automobiles. The villages often included shops and civic buildings. In contrast, garden enclaves are typically strictly residential and emphasize natural and private space rather than public and community space. The urban form of the enclaves was often coordinated through the use of early land use controls typical of modern zoning, including controlled setbacks, landscaping, and materials.[64]

Garden suburbs were not part of Howard's plan[65] and were actually a hindrance to garden city planning. Raymond Unwin, one of Howard's early collaborators on the Letchworth Garden City project in 1907, became very influential in formalizing the garden city principles in the design of garden suburbs through his work Town Planning in Practice: An Introduction to the Art of Designing Cities and Suburbs (1909).[66] The book strongly influenced the Housing, Town Planning, etc. Act 1909, which provided municipalities with the power to develop urban plans for new suburban communities.[67]

Smaller developments were also inspired by the garden city philosophy and were modified to allow for residential "garden suburbs" without the commercial and industrial components of the garden city.[68] They were built on the outskirts of cities, in rural settings. Some notable examples being, in London, Hampstead Garden Suburb, the Sutton Garden Suburb in Benhilton, Sutton, Pinner's Pinnerwood conversation area and the Romford Garden Suburb in Gidea Park and, in Liverpool, Wavertree Garden Suburb. The Gidea Park estate, in particular, was built during two main periods of activity, 1911 and 1934. Both resulted in some good examples of domestic architecture by such architects as Wells Coates and Berthold Lubetkin. Thanks to such strongly conservative residents' associations as the Civic Society, both Hampstead and Gidea Park retain much of their original character. In Bristol, garden suburbs predominated in the interwar period for council housing. However, they were perceived to have some drawbacks, including a lack of community, higher transport/shopping costs, and limited access to work.[69]

Bournville Village Trust in Birmingham, UK, is an important residential development associated with the growth of 'Cadbury's Factory in a Garden'. Here, the Garden City principles are a fundamental part of the Trust's activity. There are strict restrictions on the properties here, such as no stone wall cladding.[citation needed]

Park median in Avenida Ámsterdam, the "grand avenue" of the Mexico City subdivision Colonia Hipódromo de la Condesa, designed in 1926 and inspired in part by Ebenezer Howard's Garden City

Howard's influence reached as far as Mexico City, where architect José Luis Cuevas was influenced by the garden city concept in the design of two of the most iconic inner-city subdivisions, Colonia Hipódromo de la Condesa (1926) and Lomas de Chapultepec (1928–9):[70]

The subdivisions were based on the principles of the garden city as promoted by Ebenezer Howard, including ample parks and other open spaces, park islands in the middle of "grand avenues", such as Avenida Amsterdam in colonia Hipódromo.[70] One unique example of a garden suburb is the Humberstone Garden Suburb in the United Kingdom by the Humberstone Anchor Tenants' Association in Leicestershire, and it is the only garden suburb ever to be built by the members of a workers' co-operative; it remains intact to the present.[72] In 1887, the workers of the Anchor Shoe Company in Humberstone formed a workers' cooperative and built 97 houses.

American architects and partners, Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin[73] were proponents of the movement and after their arrival in Australia to design the national capital Canberra, they produced a number of garden suburb estates, most notably at Eaglemont with the Glenard[74] and Mount Eagle Estates[75] and the Ranelagh and Milleara Estates in Victoria.

Jewish settlers implemented the idea of garden suburbs in Mandate Palestine and later in Israel, as well as in British- and French-colonial urban areas in Africa.[76][77]

See also

[edit source]
Related urban design concepts

Notes

[edit source]

References

[edit source]
  1. ↑ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 281.
  2. ↑ Mumford, Lewis (1938). The Culture of Cities. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. p. 398.
  3. ↑ Goodall, B (1987), Dictionary of Human Geography, London: Penguin.
  4. ↑ Heckmann-Umhau, Philipp (2024-08-12). "The Protestant Origins of the German Garden City, 1848–1910". German History. 42 (3): 362. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghae036. ISSN 0266-3554.
  5. ↑ Howard, E (1902), Garden Cities of To-morrow (2nd ed.), London: S. Sonnenschein & Co, pp. 2–7.
  6. 1 2 Lin, Zhongjie (2025). Constructing Utopias: China's New Town Movement in the 21st Century. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-779330-5.
  7. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 42.
  8. ↑ Hardy 1999, p. 4.
  9. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 43.
  10. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 46.
  11. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 47.
  12. ↑ Hall 2002, p. 68.
  13. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 48.
  14. ↑ Fainstein & Campbell 2003, p. 50.
  15. ↑ Hall 2002, p. 100.
  16. ↑ Hall & Ward 1998, pp. 45–7.
  17. ↑ Hardy 1999, p. 8.
  18. ↑ Hall & Ward 1998, p. 46.
  19. ↑ Hall & Ward 1998, pp. 52–3.
  20. ↑ Webberley, Helen (2008), Town-planning in a Brand New City, Brisbane: AAANZ Conference, archived from the original on 2010-01-12, retrieved 2009-01-25.
  21. ↑ Zaidman, Miki; Kark, Ruth (2016-01-02). "Garden cities in the Jewish Yishuv of Palestine: Zionist ideology and practice 1905–1945". Planning Perspectives. 31 (1): 13–14. Bibcode:2016PlPer..31...55Z. doi:10.1080/02665433.2015.1039051. ISSN 0266-5433.
  22. ↑ Oshima, Ken Tadashi (1996-06-01). "Denenchōfu: Building the Garden City in Japan". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 55 (2): 140–151. doi:10.2307/991116. ISSN 0037-9808. JSTOR 991116. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  23. ↑ Oshima, Ken Tadashi (1996). "Denenchofu: Building the Garden City in Japan". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 55 (2): 140–151. doi:10.2307/991116. JSTOR 991116.
  24. ↑ Suga, Yasoku (2019). "Branded Heterotopia: Omiya Bonsai Village in Japan from 1925 to the Present". Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes. 39 (1): 78. doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1511178. S2CID 166160488.
  25. ↑ "知られざる東京の住宅街 大和郷（やまとむら）岩崎(弥太郎)一家、首相も住んだ街 | コラム | 三菱地所リアルエステートサービス（株）".
  26. ↑ Suga, Yasoku (2019). "Branded Heterotopia: Omiya Bonsai Village in Japan from 1925 to the Present". Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes. 39 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1511178. S2CID 166160488.
  27. ↑ Suga, Yasoku (2019). "Branded Heterotopia: Omiya Bonsai Village in Japan from 1925 to the Present". Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes. 39 (1): 79. doi:10.1080/14601176.2018.1511178. S2CID 166160488.
  28. ↑ Puutarhakaupungin kesässä tuoksuvat kukat ja maistuu jäätelö - Kaunis Grani Archived 2021-05-16 at the Wayback Machine (in Finnish)
  29. ↑ Smets, Marcel (1977). L'avènement de la cité-jardin en Belgique: histoire de l'habitat social en Belgique de 1830 à 1930 (in French). Editions Mardaga. ISBN 978-2-87009-082-4. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  30. ↑ "Belgische steenkoolmijnen". Belgische steenkoolmijnen (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 2023-12-08. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  31. ↑ Butler, Rémy; Noisette, Patrice (1983-01-01). Le Logement social en France (1815-1981): De la cité ouvrière au grand ensemble (in French). La Découverte (réédition numérique FeniXX). ISBN 978-2-348-01090-3. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  32. ↑ Wilkinson, Philip, ed. (2013), "Gartenstadt", 50 Schlüsselideen Architektur (in German), Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, pp. 96–99, doi:10.1007/978-3-8274-3066-3_25, ISBN 978-3-8274-3066-3, archived from the original on 2024-05-25, retrieved 2023-12-18
  33. ↑ Lindner, Ralph; Thomas Will, eds. (2012). Gartenstadt – Geschichte und Zukunftsfähigkeit einer Idee (in German). Dresden: Thelem Verlag. ISBN 978-3-942411-33-2.
  34. ↑ Spórna, Tomasz; Sudra, Paweł; Figlus, Tomasz; Musiaka, Łukasz; Kryczka, Piotr; Lisowska-Kierepka, Agnieszka; Sikorski, Dominik; Szmytkie, Robert (2025). "From idea to urban form: The evolution of Howard's concept and typology of historical garden cities in Poland". Journal of Historical Geography. 90: 64–77. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2025.09.004. Retrieved 2025-10-15.
  35. ↑ "Western Garden Cities". Van Eesteren Museum. Archived from the original on 2023-12-17. Retrieved 2023-12-16.
  36. ↑ "{title}". Archived from the original on 2018-08-08. Retrieved 2018-10-25.
  37. ↑ "{title}". Archived from the original on 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2013-02-03.
  38. ↑ Horley, Robert (1998). The Best Kept Secrets of Parma, "The Garden City". Robert Horley. ISBN 0-9661721-0-8.
  39. ↑ "Daceyville - National Museum of Australia". Archived from the original on 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-08.
  40. ↑ "City of Mitcham - History Pages". Archived from the original on 2009-10-12. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
  41. ↑ "HV McKay memorial gardens", Victorian Heritage Database, Vic, AU: The Government, archived from the original on 2009-12-04, retrieved 2009-08-28.
  42. ↑ "2000 Study Site N 068—Albion—HO Selwyn Park", Post-contact Cultural Heritage Study (PDF), Vic, AU: Brimbank City Council, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-22.
  43. ↑ Sue Jackson-Stepowski (2008). "Haberfield". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
  44. ↑ 37676518 (photogram), Panoramio, archived from the original on 2017-06-25, retrieved 2017-12-02.
  45. ↑ A. Trystan Edwards (January 1914). "A Further Criticism of the Garden City Movement". The Town Planning Review. 4 (4): 312–318. doi:10.3828/tpr.4.4.30717076162801hu. JSTOR 40100071. Archived from the original on 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
  46. 1 2 Stephen Ward (18 October 2005). The Garden City: Past, present and future. Routledge. pp. 205–. ISBN 978-1-135-82895-0.
  47. 1 2 Dylan Welch (2009-01-08). "Demolition ordered for Rosemeadow estate". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
  48. ↑ Rowland, Michelle (June 2007). Manifestations of Ebenezer Howard in Disneyland (MA thesis). University of South Florida. Archived from the original on 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2015-05-14.
  49. ↑ "City in a Garden" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-14. Retrieved 2017-02-19.
  50. ↑ "National Parks Board". Archived from the original on 2017-02-26. Retrieved 2017-02-19.
  51. ↑ Garden Cities Archived 2013-08-12 at the Wayback Machine at Town and Country Planning Association
  52. ↑ "Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today - a guide for councils" Archived 2013-07-06 at the Wayback Machine
  53. ↑ "Letchworth Declaration". 9 September 2014. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2015-10-10.
  54. ↑ Cabannes, Yves; Ross, Philip (2015-02-13). 21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow: A manifesto. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-291-47827-3.[self-published source]
  55. ↑ "Ebbsfleet: Britain's first new garden city". The Telegraph. 16 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-09-20. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  56. ↑ "Bicester chosen as new garden city with 13,000 homes". BBC News. 2 December 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-07-17. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  57. ↑ "New garden towns to create thousands of new homes". Gov.uk. United Kingdom Government. Archived from the original on 2016-09-17. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  58. ↑ "Black Country Garden City to get 45,000 new homes". BBC News. 13 March 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-10-01. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
  59. ↑ McCann, Kate (2 January 2017). "New garden towns and villages to provide 200,000 homes to ease housing shortage". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2018-01-16. Retrieved 2018-04-04.
  60. ↑ Hall & Ward 1998, p. 41.
  61. ↑ Stern, Robert A.M.; Fishman, David; Tilove, Jacob (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-1580933261. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  62. ↑ Tibet, Tartary and Mongolia by Henry Princep (review) Star of Freedom 23 August 1851 p. 3
  63. ↑ Stern, Robert A.M.; Fishman, David; Tilove, Jacob (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. ISBN 978-1580933261.
  64. ↑ Stern, Robert A.M.; Fishman, David; Tilove, Jacob (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1580933261. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  65. ↑ Hall, Peter (1996), "4", Cities of Tomorrow, Oxford: BlackWell.
  66. ↑ Hall 2002, pp. 110–12.
  67. ↑ Stern, Robert A.M.; Fishman, David; Tilove, Jacob (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-1580933261. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  68. ↑ Hollow, Matthew (2011). "Suburban Ideals on England's Interwar Council Estates". Archived from the original on 2013-08-11. Retrieved 2012-12-29.
  69. ↑ Jevons, Rosamond; Madge, John (1946). "The Estates: Garden Development". Housing Estates: a Study of Bristol Corporation Policy and Practice Between the Wars. Bristol: University of Bristol. pp. 19–21, 35–46.
  70. 1 2 Manuel Sánchez de Carmona; et al., El trazo de Las Lomas y de la Hipódromo Condesa (PDF) (in Spanish), archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-29
  71. ↑ ""Histoira de la Arquitectura Mexicana", Gabriela Piña Olivares, Autonomous University of Hidalgo" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
  72. ↑ "Humberstone Garden Suburb". UK: Utopia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
  73. ↑ Goad, Philip (2012). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Cambridge University Press.
  74. ↑ "Victorian Heritage Database". vhd.heritagecouncil.vic.gov.au. January 5, 2007. Archived from the original on 2018-05-14. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  75. ↑ "Victorian Heritage Database". vhd.heritagecouncil.vic.gov.au. January 5, 2007. Archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Retrieved 2020-05-18.
  76. ↑ Yossi Katz), "The Extension of Ebenezer Howard's Ideas on Urbanization outside the British Isles: The Example of Palestine", JSTOR 41146338
  77. ↑ Liora Bigon; Yossi Katz, eds. (2014). "From metropolitan to colonial planning: Dakar between garden city and cité-jardin". Garden Cities and Colonial Planning. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-5261-0678-0. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2021-11-18.

Sources

[edit source]
  • Fainstein, S; Campbell, S (2003), Readings in planning theory, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
  • Hall, P (2002), Cities of Tomorrow (3rd ed.), Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
  • ———; Ward, C (1998), Sociable Cities: the Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Hardy, D (1999), 1899–1999, London, England: Town and Country Planning Association.

Further reading

[edit source]
  • Bigon, Liora. "Garden Cities." in The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Studies (2019) pp: 1–6.
  • Bigon, Liora, and Y. Katz, eds. Garden Cities and Colonial Planning: Transnationality and Urban Ideas in Africa and Palestine (Manchester University Press, 2014). online review Archived 2015-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
  • Clevenger, Samuel M., and David L. Andrews. "Regenerating the ‘Stock’ of the Empire: Biopower and Physical Culture in English Garden City Planning Discourse, 1898–1903." International Journal of the History of Sport (2021): 1-20.
  • Freestone, Robert. "The garden city idea in Australia." Australian Geographical Studies 20.1 (1982): 24–48.
  • Geertse, Michel. "The International Garden City campaign: transnational negotiations on town planning methods 1913-1926." Journal of Urban History 42.4 (2016): 733–752.
  • Jones, Karen R. "'The Lungs of the City': Green Space, Public Health and Bodily Metaphor in the Landscape of Urban Park History." Environment and History 24.1 (2018): 39-58 online Archived 2022-01-23 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Knight, Frances. "The Victorian city and the Christian imagination: from gothic city to garden city." Urban History 48.1 (2021): 37-53 online Archived 2022-01-23 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Kolankiewicz, Victoria, David Nichols, and Robert Freestone. "The tribulations of Walter Burley Griffin’s final Australian plan: Milleara as ‘the garden city of the future’ 1925–1965." Planning Perspectives 34.5 (2019): 911-923; on Melbourne suburbs.
  • Lewis, John. "Preserving and maintaining the concept of Letchworth Garden City." Planning perspectives 30.1 (2015): 153–163.
  • Meacham, Standish. Regaining Paradise: Englishness and the Early Garden City Movement (1999).
  • Miller, Mervyn. "Commemorating and celebrating Raymond Unwin (1863–1940)." Planning Perspectives 30.1 (2015): 129–140.
  • Nikologianni, Anastasia, and Peter J. Larkham. "The Urban Future: Relating Garden City Ideas to the Climate Emergency." Land 11.2 (2022): 147+.
  • Purdom, Charles Benjamin. The Garden City: a study in the development of a modern town (JM Dent & Sons Limited, 1913), on Letchworth. online Archived 2023-06-30 at the Wayback Machine
  • Reade, Charles C. "A defence of the Garden City movement." The Town Planning Review 4.3 (1913): 245–251, a primary source; online Archived 2022-01-23 at the Wayback Machine
  • Ross, P; Cabannes, Y (2012), 21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow - How to become a Garden City, Letchworth Garden City: New Garden City Movement, archived from the original on 2013-08-23, retrieved 2013-05-14.
  • Stern, Robert A. M., David Fishman, and Jacob Tilove, eds. Paradise planned: the garden suburb and the modern city (Monacelli Press, 2013).
  • van Rooijen, Maurits. "Garden city versus green town: The case of Amsterdam 1910–1935." Planning Perspective 5.3 (1990): 285–293.
  • Ward, Stephen. The garden city: Past, present and future (Routledge, 2005).
  • Wilson, Matthew. "A new civic spirit for garden city-states: on the lifework of Sybella Gurney." Journal of Planning History 17.4 (2018): 320–344. online[dead link]
[edit source]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garden_city_movement&oldid=1364763267"