General Jewish Labour Bund

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This article is about the original Jewish Labour Bund, in the Russian Empire. For other General Jewish Labour Bunds, see General Jewish Labour Bund (disambiguation).
General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia

‏אַלגעמײנער ייִדישער אַרבעטער־בונד אין ליטע, פּױלן און רוסלאַנד ‏
Founded1897
Dissolved1920
IdeologyBundism
Socialism
Jewish Autonomism
Non-Zionism
Political positionLeft-wing

The General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia (Yiddish: ‏אַלגעמײנער ייִדישער אַרבעטער־בונד אין ליטע, פּױלן און רוסלאַנד ‏‎,[1] algemeyner yidisher arbeter-bund in lite, poyln un rusland), generally called The Bund (Yiddish: בונד‎, cognate to German: Bund, meaning federation or union) or the Jewish Labour Bund, was a secular Jewish socialist party in the Russian Empire, active between 1897 and 1920. In 1917 the Polish part of the Bund, which dated to the times when Poland was a Russian territory, seceded from the Russian Bund and created a new Polish General Labor Bund which continued to operate in Poland in the years between the two world wars. The Russian Bund was dissolved in 1920 and incorporated into the Communist Party. Other remnants of the Bund endured in various countries. A member of the Bund was called a Bundist.

Founding[edit]

The "General Jewish Labour Bund in Russia and Poland" was founded in Vilnius on October 7, 1897.[2][3] The name was inspired by the General German Workers' Association.[4] The Bund sought to unite all Jewish workers in the Russian Empire into a united socialist party, and also to ally itself with the wider Russian social democratic movement to achieve a democratic and socialist Russia. The Russian Empire then included Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Ukraine and most of present-day Poland, areas where the majority of the world's Jews then lived.[5] They hoped to see the Jews achieve a legal minority status in Russia. Of all Jewish political parties of the time, the Bund was the most progressive regarding gender equality, with women making up more than one-third of all members.[6]

The Bund actively campaigned against anti-Semitism. It defended Jewish civil and cultural rights and rejected assimilation. However, the close promotion of Jewish sectional interests and support for the concept of Jewish national unity (klal yisrael) was prevented by the socialist universalism of the Bund. The Bund avoided any automatic solidarity with Jews of the middle and upper classes and generally rejected political cooperation with Jewish groups that held religious, Zionist or conservative views. Even the anthem of the Bund, known as "the oath" (di shvue in Yiddish), written in 1902 by Sh. An-ski, contained no explicit reference to Jews or Jewish suffering.[7]

At the heart of the vision of the future of the Bund was the idea that there is no contradiction between the national aspect on the one hand and the socialist aspect on the other. as a strictly secular organization, the Bund renounced the holy Land and the sacred language (Hebrew) and chose to speak Yiddish.[8]

In 1901, the word 'Lithuania' was added to the name of the party.[4][9]

The Bund's membership grew to 900 in Lodz and 1,200 in Warsaw in the fall of 1904.[10]

During the period of 1903–1904, the Bund was harshly affected by Czarist state repression. Between June 1903 and July 1904, 4,467 Bundists were arrested and jailed.[11]

In its early years the Bund had remarkable success, gaining an estimated 30,000 members in 1903 and an estimated 40,000 supporters in 1906, making it the largest socialist group in the Russian Empire.[7]

As part of the Russian Social Democracy[edit]

Members of the Bund with the bodies of their comrades, murdered during the Odessa pogrom in 1905

Given the Bund's secular and socialist perspective, it opposed what it viewed as the reactionary nature of traditional Jewish life in Russia. Created before the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP),[12] the Bund was a founding collective member at the RSDLP's first congress in Minsk in March 1898.[13][14] For the next 5 years, the Bund was recognized as the sole representative of the Jewish workers in the RSDLP, although many Russian socialists of Jewish descent, especially outside of the Pale of Settlement, joined the RSDLP directly.

At the RSDLP's second congress in Brussels and London in August 1903,[15] the Bund's autonomous position within the RSDLP was rejected[16] under pressure by the Bolsheviks and the Bund's representatives left the Congress, the first of many splits in the Russian social democratic movement in the years to come.[17][18] The five representatives of the Bund at this Congress were Vladimir Kossowsky, Arkadi Kremer, Mikhail Liber, Vladimir Medem and Noah Portnoy.[19]

The Bund formally rejoined the RSDLP when all of its faction reunited at the Fourth (Unification) Congress in Stockholm in April 1906, with the support of the Mensheviks,[17] but the RSDLP remained fractured along ideological and ethnic lines. The Bund generally sided with the party's Menshevik faction led by Julius Martov and against the Bolshevik faction led by Vladimir Lenin during the factional struggles in the run-up to the Russian Revolution of 1917.[17]

5th Congress[edit]

The fifth congress of the Bund met in Zürich in June 1903.[20][21] 30 delegates took part in the proceedings, representing the major city branches of the party and the Foreign Committee. Two issues dominated the debates; the upcoming congress of the RSDLP and the national question. During the debates there was a division between the older guard of the Foreign Committee (Kossovsky, Kremer and John (Yosef) Mill and the younger generation represented by Medem, Liber and Raphael Abramovitch. The younger group wanted to stress the Jewish national character of the party. In the end no compromise could be reached, and no resolution was adopted on the national question.[22]

1905 Revolution and its aftermath[edit]

In the Polish areas of the empire, the Bund was a leading force in the 1905 revolution. At that time the organization probably reached the height of its influence. It called for an improvement in living standards, a more democratic political system and the introduction of equal rights for Jews.[7] At least in the early stages of the first Russian Revolution, the armed groups of the "Bund" were likely the strongest revolutionary force in Western Russia.[23] During the following years, the Bund went into a period of decay. The party tried to concentrate on labour activism around 1909–1910 and led strikes in ten cities. The strikes resulted in a deepened backlash for the party, and as of 1910 there were legal Bundist trade unions in only four cities, Białystok, Vilnius, Riga and Łódź. Total membership in Bundist unions was around 1,500. At the time of the eighth party conference only nine local branches were represented (Riga, Vilnius, Białystok, Łódź, Bobruisk, Pinsk, Warsaw, Grodno and Dvinsk) with a combined membership of 609 (out of whom 404 were active).[24]

After the RSDLP finally split in 1912, the Bund became a federated part of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Menshevik) (by this time the Mensheviks had accepted the idea of a federated party organization).[25]

Parliamentary representation[edit]

At the 1906 First Duma elections, the Bund made an electoral agreement with the Lithuanian Labourers' Party (Trudoviks), which resulted in the election to the Duma of two (apparently non-Bundist) candidates supported by the Bund: Dr. Shmaryahu Levin for the Vilnius province and Leon Bramson for the Kaunas province. In total, there were twelve Jewish deputies in the Duma, falling to three in the Second Duma (February 1907 to June 1907), two in the Third Duma (1907–1912) and again three in the fourth, elected in 1912, none of them being affiliated to the Bund.[26]

Political outlook[edit]

The Bund eventually came to strongly oppose Zionism,[27] arguing that emigration to Palestine was a form of escapism. The Bund did not advocate separatism. Instead, it focused on culture, rather than a state or a place, as the glue of Jewish "nationalism." In this they borrowed extensively from the Austro-Marxist school, further alienating the Bolsheviks and Lenin. The Bund also promoted the use of Yiddish as a Jewish national language and to some extent opposed the Zionist project of reviving Hebrew.[28][29]

The Bund won converts mainly among Jewish artisans and workers, but also among the growing Jewish intelligentsia. It led a trade union movement of its own. It joined with the Poalei Zion (Labour Zionists) and other groups to form self-defense organisations to protect Jewish communities against pogroms and government troops. During the Russian Revolution of 1905 the Bund headed the revolutionary movement in the Jewish towns, particularly in Belarus and Ukraine.

Activities abroad[edit]

Less than a year after the founding of the party, its Foreign Committee was set up in Geneva. Also within the same timespan, Bundist groups began to constitute themselves internationally. However, the Bund did not construct any world party (as did Poalei Zion). On the contrary, the Bund argued that it was a party for action inside the Russian empire. The Bundist groups abroad were not included into the party structures. In 1902, a United Organization of Workers' Associations and Support Groups to the Bund Abroad was founded. The groups affiliated to the United Organization played an important role in raising funds for the party.[30]

Between 1901–1903, the Foreign Committee was based in London.[30]

The United Organization, the Foreign Committee as well as the Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad were all dissolved at the time of the Russian revolution of 1917.[30]

Separation of the Polish Bund[edit]

When Poland fell under German occupation in 1914, contact between the Bundists in Poland and the party centre in St. Petersburg became difficult. In November 1914 the Bund Central Committee appointed a separate Committee of Bund Organizations in Poland to run the party in Poland.[31] Theoretically the Bundists in Poland and Russia were members of the same party, but in practice the Polish Bundists operated as a party of their own.[32] In December 1917 the split was formalized, as the Polish Bundists held a clandestine meeting in Lublin and reconstituted themselves as a separate political party.[33]

1917[edit]

A Bundist demonstration, 1917

The Bund was the only Jewish party that worked within the soviets.[34] Like other socialist parties in Russia, the Bund welcomed the February Revolution of 1917, but it did not support the October Revolution in which the Bolsheviks seized power. Like Mensheviks and other non-Bolshevik parties, the Bund called for the convening of the Russian Constituent Assembly long demanded by all Social Democratic factions.[35] The Bund's key leader in Petrograd during these months was Mikhail Liber, who was to be roundly denounced by Lenin. With the Russian Civil War and the increase in anti-Semitic pogroms by nationalists and Whites, the Bund was obliged to recognise the Soviet government and its militants fought in the Red Army in large numbers.

At the time of the 1917 upheavals, Mikhail Liber was elected president of the Bund.[36] In May 1917, a new Central Committee of the Bund was formed, consisting of Goldman, Erlich, Medem and Jeremiah Weinsthein. One Central Committee member, Medem, was in Poland at the time and couldn't travel to Saint Petersburg to meet with the rest of the Committee.[37]

Four Bund bureaus were represented as such among the 60 delegates to the May 1918 Menshevik Party conference: Moscow (Abramovich), Northern (Erlich), Western (Goldshtein, Melamed) and Occupied Lands (Aizenshtadt).[38]

The political changes at the time of the Russian revolution resulted in splits in the Bund. In Ukraine, Bund branches in cities like Bobruisk,[clarification needed] Ekaterinoburg[clarification needed] and Odessa had formed 'leftwing Bund groups' in late 1918. In February 1919 these groups (representing the majority in the Bund in Ukraine) adopted the name Communist Bund (Kombund), re-constituting themselves as an independent party. Moisei Rafes, who had been a leading figure of the Bund in Ukraine, became the leader of the Ukrainian Kombund.[39][40][41] The Communist Bund supported the Soviet side in the Russian Civil War.[42][43] Other members of the Bund (representing the minority in the Bund in Ukraine) at the end of 1918 formed the Social Democratic Bund (Bund SD). Leaders of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Bund - Sore Fox, A. Litvak, David Petrovsky (Lipets) openly opposed the communist ideology and policy of confiscation of property, usurpation of political power, arrests and persecution of political opponents.[44]

The Bund also had elected officials at the local level. During the 1917 October Revolution and Russian Civil War, the mayor of the predominantly Jewish Ukrainian town of Berdychiv (53,728 inhabitants, 80% of whom were Jewish at the 1897 census) was a Bundist, David Petrovsky (Lipets).[45]

After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Bund was banned in the Soviet Union because its ideas of nationalism did not correspond to the values of the revolution. After that, the Bund became very active in Poland. Among other things it organized the Jewish trade unions, fought for workers' rights and promoted class and general education among workers.[8]

Final split at the Gomel conference[edit]

The remainder Bund in Russia held a conference (the Twelfth Conference of the Bund) on April 12–19, 1920 in Gomel, where the party was split into two separate parties, the majority Communist Bund (Kombund) and the minority Social Democratic Bund.[46][47]

The fourteen point of the resolution "On the Present Situation and the Tasks of Our Party" stated that

Summing up the experience of the last year, the Twelfth Conference of the Bund finds:

  1. that the Bund, in principle, had adopted the communist platform since the Eleventh Conference,
  2. that the Programme of the Communist Party, which is also the programme of the Soviet government, corresponds with the fundamental platform of the Bund,
  3. that a ’united socialist front’ with principled opponents of Soviet power, who draw a line between the proletariat and its government, is impossible,
  4. that the moment has come when the Bund can relinquish its official oppositional stand and take upon itself responsibility for the Soviet government’s policy.[48]

The resolution on organisational questions stated that

The logical consequence of the political stand adopted by the Bund is the latter’s entry into the R.C.P on the same basis as the Bund’s membership of the R.S.D.L.P.. The conference authorised the C.C. of the Bund to see to it, as an essential condition, that the Bund preserve within the R.C.P. the status of an autonomous organisation of the Jewish proletariat.[48]

Legacy[edit]

In 1921, the Communist Bund dissolved itself and its members sought admission to the Communist Party.[48] As of 1923, the last Bundist groups had ceased to function in Soviet Russia.[47] Many former Bundists, like Mikhail Liber and David Petrovsky, perished during Stalin's purges in the 1930s. The Polish Bundists continued their activities until 1948. During the latter half of the 20th century the Bundist legacy was represented through the International Jewish Labor Bund, a federation of local Bundist groups around the world.

Former Bundists who became high level officials in the USSR[edit]

The Bundists in North America[edit]

See also: International Jewish Labor Bund

Among the exiled Bundists who went on with Socialist politics in America was Baruch Charney Vladeck (1886–1938), elected to the New York Board of Aldermen as a Socialist in 1917, defeated in 1921 but re-elected in 1937 to the newly formed New York City Council running on the American Labor Party ticket. He was also the manager of The Jewish Daily Forward from 1918 till his death.[50]

Moishe Lewis (1888–1950) was a Bundist leader in his Polish (now Belarusian) hometown Svislosz before he emigrated to Canada in 1922.[51] He was the father of David Lewis (1909–1981), a leader of the New Democratic Party in Canada.

The American Labour leader David Dubinsky (1892–1982), though never formally a member of the party, had joined the bakers' union, which was controlled by the Bund, and was elected assistant secretary within the union by 1906. He made his way to the United States in 1911. He later became a member of the Socialist Party of America, helped found the American Labor Party in 1936 and was from 1932 till 1966 the leader of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union.[52]

Between 1913 and 1917, working under the name Max Goldfarb, David Petrovsky (1886–1937) was a member of the Central Committee of the Jewish Socialist Federation of America, a member of the Socialist Party of America, and the labor editor of The Forward.

Sara Szweber (1875–1966) was active in the Bund émigré community and took part in Bund's fourth World Congress at the age of ninety.[53]

Footnotes[edit]

  1. ^ Yiddish: ‏נ. אַ. בוכבינדער: די געשיכטע פֿון דער ייִדישער אַרבעטער־באַװעגונג אין רוסלאַנד. לױט ניט־געדרוקטע אַרכיװ־מאַטעריאַלן. טאַמאַר, 1931. ‏‎
  2. ^ Hirsz Abramowicz; Eva Zeitlin Dobkin; Dina Abramowicz; Jeffrey Shandler; David E. Fishman (1999). Profiles of a Lost World: Memoirs of East European Jewish Life Before World War II. Wayne State University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8143-2784-5.
  3. ^ Troen, S. Ilan; Fish, Rachel (2017-02-27). Essential Israel: Essays for the 21st Century. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-02719-1.
  4. ^ a b Minczeles, Henri. Histoire générale du Bund: un mouvement révolutionnaire juif. Paris: Editions Austral, 1995. p. 61
  5. ^ Tenenbaum, Marcel (2016). "Of Men, Monsters and Mazel: Surviving the "Final Solution" in Belgium". books.google.de. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  6. ^ Shepherd, Naomi (1994). A price below rubies: Jewish women as rebels and radicals. Harvard University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-674-70411-4.
  7. ^ a b c Mendes, Philip (30 November 2013). "The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Labor Bund". jewishcurrents.org. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
  8. ^ a b TLV-01, von (2017-12-27). "Der letzte Bundist". haGalil (in German). Retrieved 2020-01-31.
  9. ^ Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2004). Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 123.
  10. ^ Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2004-01-26). Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia, 1892–1914. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-19463-5.
  11. ^ Minczeles, Henri. Histoire générale du Bund: un mouvement révolutionnaire juif. Paris: Editions Austral, 1995. p. 119
  12. ^ Hilbrenner, Anke. "Jüdische Geschichte. Digitales Handbuch zur Geschichte und Kultur Russlands und Osteuropas" (PDF). epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  13. ^ Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich; Khrushchev, Serge_ (2004). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev: Commissar, 1918-1945. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02332-8.
  14. ^ Sirutavcius, Vladas (2011). "A Pragmatic Alliance. Jewish-Lithuanian Political Cooperation at the Beginning of the 20th Century". books.google.de. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  15. ^ Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich; Khrushchev, Serge_ (2004). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev: Commissar, 1918-1945. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02332-8.
  16. ^ Bhambra, Gurminder K.; Narayan, John (2016-10-26). European Cosmopolitanism: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Societies. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-33572-6.
  17. ^ a b c Angel Smith; Stefan Berger (1999). Nationalism, Labour and Ethnicity: 1870–1939. Manchester University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7190-5052-7.
  18. ^ Mullin, Richard James (2010-06-08). Lenin and the Iskra faction of the RSDLP: 1899-1903 (doctoral thesis). University of Sussex.
  19. ^ Vital, David (2001). A people apart: a political history of the Jews in Europe, 1789–1939. Oxford University Press. p. 944. ISBN 978-0-19-924681-6. Retrieved 2009-11-05.
  20. ^ "The Relations between the Jewish Bund and the RSDRP 1897-1903". ora.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  21. ^ Frankel, Jonathan (1984-11-08). Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862-1917. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26919-3.
  22. ^ Minczeles, Henri. Histoire générale du Bund: un mouvement révolutionnaire juif. Paris: Editions Austral, 1995. p. 130
  23. ^ Strauss, Herbert A. (2011-09-06). Austria - Hungary - Poland - Russia. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-088329-9.
  24. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. pp. 33–34
  25. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. p. 35
  26. ^ Levin, Dov (2000). The Litvaks: a short history of the Jews in Lithuania. Berghahn Books. p. 283. ISBN 978-1-57181-264-3. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
  27. ^ Walter Laqueur (2003). The History of Zionism. TaurisParke Paperbacks. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-86064-932-5.
  28. ^ David E. Fishman (2005). The Rise of Modern Yiddish Culture. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-8229-4272-6.
  29. ^ Schreiber, Mordecai; Schiff, Alvin I.; Klenicki, Leon (2003). The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia. Schreiber Pub. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-887563-77-2.
  30. ^ a b c Jacobs, Jack Lester. Jewish Politics in Eastern Europe: The Bund at 100. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001. pp. 46–51
  31. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. p. 37
  32. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. pp. 52–53, 61
  33. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. pp. 69–70
  34. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. p. 56
  35. ^ Robert Paul Browder; Alexander F Kerensky (1961). The Russian Provisional Government, 1917: Documents. Stanford University Press. p. 428. ISBN 978-0-8047-0023-8.
  36. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. p. 59
  37. ^ Johnpoll, Bernard K. The Politics of Futility; The General Jewish Workers Bund of Poland, 1917–1943. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1967. p. 61
  38. ^ Brovkin, Vladimir. N. (1991). The Mensheviks after October: socialist opposition and the rise of the Bolshevik dictatorship. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 201–204. ISBN 978-0-8014-9976-0. Retrieved 2009-11-10.
  39. ^ Nora Levin (1991-01-01). Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. NYU Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-8147-5051-3.
  40. ^ Abraham Malamat; Haim H Ben-Sasson (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p. 966. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6.
  41. ^ Benjamin Pinkus (1990-01-26). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6.
  42. ^ Elizabeth A. Wood (2005). Performing Justice: Agitation Trials In Early Soviet Russia. Cornell University Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-8014-4257-5.
  43. ^ Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson (March 2007). Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. C.H.Beck. p. 1186. ISBN 978-3-406-55918-1.
  44. ^ Joshua Meyers, “A Portrait of Transition: From the Bund to Bolshevism in the Russian Revolution,” Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, Society n.s. 24, no. 2 (Winter 2019): 107–134. Copyright © 2019 The Trustees of Indiana University. doi: 10.2979/jewisocistud.24.2.09
  45. ^ Ettinger, Shmuel; Shmuel Spector (2008). "Berdichev". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Retrieved 6 December 2009.
  46. ^ Michael Brenner; Derek J. Penslar (1998). In Search of Jewish Community: Jewish Identities in Germany and Austria, 1918–1933. Indiana University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-253-21224-5.
  47. ^ a b Fruma Mohrer; Marek Web, eds. (1998). Guide to the Yivo Archives. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research/M.E. Sharpe. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-7656-0130-8.
  48. ^ a b c explanatory note to Lenin, Vladimir I. (April 19 – May 6, 1920). "To Members of the Politbureau of the C.C., R.C.P.(B.)". Marxists Internet Archive. Lenin Internet Archive (2003). Retrieved 2009-11-10., from documents archived at the Central Party Archives, Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the C.C., C.P.S.TJ.
  49. ^ The General Directorate of military educational institutions: Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation – Encyclopedia http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/dictionary/details_rvsn.htm?id=5376@morfDictionary
  50. ^ Gitelman, Zvi Y. (2003). The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-8229-4188-0. Retrieved 2009-12-04.
  51. ^ Fuerstenberg, Adam. "The Marvellous Trajectory of David Lewis' Life and Career". Toronto: Beth Tzedec Congregation. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
  52. ^ Robert D. Parmet (2005-07-30). The Master Of Seventh Avenue: David Dubinsky And The American Labor Movement. NYU Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8147-6711-5.
  53. ^ Gertrud Pickhan, "Sara Szweber" in Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia [1].

Further reading[edit]

  • Jack Jacobs (ed.), Jewish Politics in Eastern Europe: The Bund at 100. New York: New York University Press, 2001.
  • Alfred Katz, "Bund: The Jewish Socialist Labor Party," The Polish Review, vol. 10, no. 3 (Summer 1965), pp. 67–74.

External links[edit]

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