Jump to content

Mainland Southeast Asia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Indochina)
"Indochina" redirects here. For the French colonial regime, see French Indochina.

Mainland Southeast Asia
Indochina
Area2,071,552 km2 (799,831 sq mi)
Population276,966,662 (2025)
Population density133.7/km2 (346/sq mi) (2025)
DemonymSoutheast Asian, Mainland Southeast Asian
Countries
LanguagesBurmese, Khmer, Laotian, Malaysian, Thai, Vietnamese
Time zonesUTC+6:30, UTC+7:00, UTC+8:00
Internet TLD.kh, .la, .mm, .my, .sg, .th, and .vn
Largest cities

Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It comprises the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.[1][2][3][4][5] MSEA borders East Asia to the north, South Asia to the west, and Maritime Southeast Asia to the south and east.

The term Indochina (originally Indo-China) was coined in the early nineteenth century, emphasizing the historical cultural influence of Indian and Chinese civilizations on the region. The term was later adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina (present-day Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). Today, the term "Mainland Southeast Asia" is more commonly used, in contrast to Maritime Southeast Asia for the island groups off the coast of the continental region.

Terminology

[edit]
1886 map of Indochina, from the Scottish Geographical Magazine

In Indian sources, the earliest name connected with Southeast Asia is Yāvadvīpa [ms].[6] Another possible early name of mainland Southeast Asia was Suvarṇabhūmi ("land of gold"),[6][7] a toponym, that appears in many ancient Indian literary sources and Buddhist texts,[8] but which, along with Suvarṇadvīpa ("island" or "peninsula of gold"),[6] are also thought to refer to insular Southeast Asia.[6]

The origins of the name Indo-China are usually attributed jointly to the Danish-French geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, who referred to the area as indo-chinois in 1804, and the Scottish linguist John Leyden, who used the term Indo-Chinese to describe the area's inhabitants and their languages in 1808.[9] The unfamiliar outsiders from Europe thought the region had a dual Indian and Chinese cultural makeup.[10] Much of the mainland practiced Theravada Buddhism while the east coast had a Confucian Kingdom (Đại Việt) with a language based on Chinese characters.[10] However, in reality the mainland was inhabited by about twelve different kingdoms and other territories with an ethnically diverse population descended from twenty-three different societies dating back to at least the fourteenth century.[10] The French failed to properly recognize this ethnic diversity and simply referred to the region as Indochina.[10]

Scholarly opinions at the time regarding China's and India's historical influence over the area were conflicting, and the term was itself controversial—Malte-Brun himself later argued against its use in a later edition of his La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, reasoning that it overemphasized Chinese influence, and suggested Chin-India instead.[11] Nevertheless, Indo-China had already gained traction and soon supplanted alternative terms such as Further India and the Peninsula beyond the Ganges. Later, however, as the French established the colony of French Indochina (covering present-day Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam), use of the term became more restricted to the French colony.[12][10] After the Vietnam War, the term Indochina gradually fell out of use in favor of the more politically correct (Mainland) Southeast Asia.[10] Today the area is usually referred to as Mainland Southeast Asia.[13][1] The regional abbreviation MSEA is used especially in academia.[14][15]

Biogeography

[edit]

In biogeography, the Indochinese bioregion is a major region in the Indomalayan realm, and also a phytogeographical floristic region in the Oriental Paleotropical Kingdom. It includes the native flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalayan and Australasian realms.[16]

Geography

[edit]
Mekong River
Topographic Map of Mainland Southeast Asia 2005

Mainland Southeast Asia is formally classified as a continental region which extends from the Asian landmass. It is fundamentally a "continental projection" of Asia,[1] bordered by India to the west and China to the north. It is situated completely above the equator in the Northern Hemisphere. The continental region projects southward from the Asian continent proper. It contains several mountain ranges extending from the Tibetan Plateau in the north, interspersed with lowlands largely drained by three major river systems running in a north–south direction: the Irrawaddy (Myanmar), the Chao Phraya (in Thailand), and the Mekong (flowing through Northeastern Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). To the south it forms the Malay Peninsula, located on which are Southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia. Singapore is a small island country that is separated from Malaysia by the 1.6 km wide Straits of Johor. The Singapore Strait is a 113 km-long waterway and eastern extension of the Strait of Malacca, linking it to the South China Sea.

Tonlé Sap in Cambodia is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia with a maximum surface area of 16,000 km2 (6,200 mi2).

The Gulf of Thailand is the largest gulf in Southeast Asia with a surface area of 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi).[17] It has a mean depth of 45 meters, and a maximum depth of 80 meters.

The Mekong is 4,900 km long and the longest river in Southeast Asia.[18] It flows from its source in the Tibetan Plateau through multiple countries in MSEA including Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.[18] The river basin drains a total land area of 795,000 km2 and it has the world's 10th largest mean annual discharge of 475 km3.[18]

The highest elevation is Hkakabo Razi mountain at 5,881-meter (19,295 ft) in Myanmar. The lowest point is Boh Yai mine which is at least −106-meter (−348 ft) in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand.[19]

Mainland Southeast Asia is separated from the archipelagoes of Maritime Southeast Asia primarily by the South China Sea to the east and southeast, the Strait of Malacca to the south, and the Andaman Sea to the west. The maritime region comprises islands and archipelagos. The physical geography of Peninsular Malaysia connects via the Kra Isthmus to Thailand which makes it part of Mainland Southeast Asia.[1][2][3][4][5] Malaysia is both mainland and insular.[4] East Malaysia is in Borneo so it is variably considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia.[citation needed]

MSEA borders China to the north (East Asia), Bangladesh and India to the west (South Asia), and Indonesia as well as the Philippines to the south and east (Maritime Southeast Asia).

Climate

[edit]
Climate of Southeast Asia

The Köppen climate classification says the northern areas of Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam have a temperate climate.[20] Central Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Southern Laos have mainly a tropical savannah climate. The western coastline along the Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea and Southern Thailand have a tropical monsoon climate. Central and Southern Vietnam have both tropical savannah and monsoon climates. The tip of Southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore have a tropical rainforest climate.

List of states and territories

[edit]
A political map of Mainland Southeast Asia

This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any common geographical or political definitions of Mainland Southeast Asia. All countries listed are members of ASEAN.

Arms Flag Name Area
(km2) 		Population
(2025)[21] 		Population density
(/km2) 		HDI
(2021)[22] 		Capital
Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia 181,035[23] 17,577,760 92 0.593 Phnom Penh
Laos Laos Laos 236,800[24] 7,647,000 31 0.607 Vientiane
Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia 132,090[25] (peninsular portion only) 27,111,506 (79.2% in peninsular portion)[26] 102 0.803 Kuala Lumpur *
Myanmar Myanmar Myanmar 676,578[27] 51,316,756 80 0.585 Nay Pyi Taw
Singapore Singapore Singapore 719.2[28] 6,110,200 8,261 0.939 Singapore
Thailand Thailand Thailand 513,120[29] 65,859,640 140 0.800 Bangkok
Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam 331,210[30] 101,343,800 294 0.703 Hanoi
Total 2,071,552.2 276,966,662 133.7 0.718

* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.

Economy

[edit]
Country Currency Population

(2020)[31][32]

Nominal GDP

(2020) $ billion[33]

GDP per capita

(2020)[34]

GDP growth

(2020)[35]

Inflation

(2020)[36]

Main industries
Cambodia ៛ Riel US$ US Dollar 16,718,965 $26.316 $1,572 -2.8% 2.5% Clothing, gold, agriculture
Laos ₭ Kip 7,275,560 $18.653 $2,567 0.2% 6.5% Copper, electronics, Tin
Malaysia RM Ringgit 32,365,999 $336.330 $10,192 -6% -1.1% Electronics, petroleum, petrochemicals, palm oil, automotive
Myanmar K Kyat 54,409,800 $70.890 $1,333 2% 6.1% Natural gas, agriculture, clothing
Singapore S$ Singapore dollar 5,850,342 $337.451 $58,484 -6% -0.4% Electronics, petroleum, chemicals
Thailand ฿ Baht 69,799,978 $509.200 $7,295 -7.1% -0.4% Electronics, automotive, rubber
Vietnam ₫ Đồng 97,338,579 $340.602 $3,498 2.9% 3.8% Electronics, clothing, petroleum

Culture

[edit]
See also: Culture of Southeast Asia
Ethnolinguistic groups of mainland Southeast Asia

Mainland Southeast Asia contrasts with Maritime Southeast Asia, mainly through the division of largely land-based lifestyles in Indochina and the sea-based lifestyles of the Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago, as well as the dividing line between the Austroasiatic, Tai–Kadai, and Sino-Tibetan languages (spoken in Mainland Southeast Asia) versus the Austronesian languages (spoken in Maritime Southeast Asia). The languages of the mainland form the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area: although belonging to several independent language families, they have converged over the course of history and share a number of typological similarities.[citation needed]

The countries of Mainland Southeast Asia received cultural influence from both India and China to varying degrees.[37] Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia were all significantly influenced by the ancient cultures of India and Sri Lanka. Vietnam is generally considered part of the Sinosphere, although it has also been influenced to a lesser extent by India.[citation needed] The former kingdom of Champa in Central and Southern Vietnam was very influenced by Indian culture.

Overall, Mainland Southeast Asia is religiously diverse, with Buddhism forming a majority religion in parts of the region, alongside significant Muslim,[38][39] Christian, and folk religious traditions.[citation needed]

The direction of road traffic is on the right side in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. It is on the left side in Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.

Demographics

[edit]
See also: Demographics of Southeast Asia

Mainland Southeast Asia is an ethnically diverse region with over 276 million people (2025). The metropolitan areas are densely populated. The capital cities are also economic hubs. However, the countryside of Myanmar and Thailand are sparsely populated. Cambodia and Laos have low density populations. The coastline of Vietnam is densely populated.

The biggest ethnic groups include the Thai, Lao, Viet, Burmese, Khmer and Malays. There are hundreds of other minor ethnic groups including Chinese, Indian, and various indigenous hill tribe populations. The Thai and Lao speak Kra–Dai languages which originate from South China. The Khmer and Viet speak Austroasiatic languages, but the Malays are Austronesian. The Burmese language is Tibeto-Burman.

As of April 2026, MSEA's population of around 277 million people represents 5.7% of the population in continental Asia and 3.4% of the total world population.

Religion

[edit]
Religion in Mainland Southeast Asia (2020)[40] [i]
  1. Buddhism (56.8%)
  2. Islam (13.5%)
  3. Folk religion (12.7%)
  4. Unaffiliated (6.98%)
  5. Christianity (6.58%)
  6. Hinduism (2.05%)
  7. Other (1.44%)
Country Religions
Cambodia Buddhism (97%), Islam, Christianity, Animism, others
Laos Buddhism (67%), Animism, Christianity, others
Malaysia Islam (61.3%), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism
Myanmar (Burma) Buddhism (89%), Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism, others
Singapore Buddhism (31.1%), Christianity (18.9%), Islam (15.6%), Taoism (8.8%), Hinduism (5%), others (20.6%)
Thailand Buddhism (93.5%), Islam (5.4%), Christianity (1.13%), Hinduism (0.02%), others (0.003%)
Vietnam Vietnamese folk religion (45.3%), Buddhism (16.4%), Christianity (8.2%), Other (0.4%), Unaffiliated (29.6%)[41]

Languages

[edit]
Country/Region Languages
Cambodia Khmer, English, French, Teochew, Vietnamese, Cham, Mandarin, others[42]
Laos Lao, French, Thai, Vietnamese, Khmu, Hmong, Phuthai, Bru, Tai Lü, Akha, Iu Mien and others[43]
Malaysia Malaysian, English, Mandarin, Tamil, Daro-Matu, Kedah Malay, Sabah Malay, Brunei Malay, Kelantan Malay, Pahang Malay, Acehnese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Banjar, Buginese, Tagalog, Hakka, Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew, Fuzhounese, Telugu, Bengali, Punjabi, Sinhala, Malayalam, Arabic, Brunei Bisaya, Okolod, Kota Marudu Talantang, Kelabit, Lotud, Terengganu Malay, Semelai, Thai, Iban, Kadazan, Dusun, Kristang, Bajau, Jakun, Mah Meri, Batek, Melanau, Semai, Temuan, Lun Bawang, Temiar, Penan, Tausug, Iranun, Lundayeh/Lun Bawang, and others[44] see: Languages of Malaysia
Myanmar (Burma) Burmese, Shan, Kayin (Karen), Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon, Kayah, Mandarin, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu and other ethnic languages.[45][46]
Singapore English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese, Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, Indonesian, Boyanese, Buginese, Javanese, Balinese, Singlish creole and others[47]

see: Languages of Singapore

Thailand Thai, Isan, Northern Khmer, Malay, Karen, Hmong, Teochew, Minnan, Hakka, Yuehai, Burmese, Iu Mien, Tamil, Bengali, Urdu, Arabic, Shan, Tai Lü, Phuthai, Mon and others[48]
Vietnam Vietnamese, Cantonese, Khmer, Hmong, Tày, Cham and others[49]

Major cities

[edit]
Main article: Cities of Southeast Asia
 
Largest population centres of Mainland Southeast Asia
Rank City name Country Pop.


1 Bangkok Thailand 18,180,000
2 Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam 14,053,000
3 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 8,444,000
4 Singapore Singapore 6,110,200
5 Yangon Myanmar 5,618,000
6 Hanoi Vietnam 5,068,000

Territorial and regional data

[edit]

Etymology

[edit]
Flag Common Name Official name ISO 3166 Country Codes[52]
Exonym Endonym Exonym Endonym ISO Short Name Alpha-2 Code Alpha-3 Code Numeric
Cambodia កម្ពុជា Kingdom of Cambodia ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា Cambodia KH KHM 116
Laos ປະເທດລາວ Lao People's Democratic Republic ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Lao People's Democratic Republic (the) LA LAO 418
Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia MY MYS 458
Myanmar မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ Republic of the Union of Myanmar ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် Myanmar MM MMR 104
Singapore Singapore Republic of Singapore Republic of Singapore Singapore SG SGP 702
Thailand ประเทศไทย Kingdom of Thailand ราชอาณาจักรไทย Thailand TH THA 764
Vietnam Việt Nam Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam Viet Nam VN VNM 704

See also

[edit]
Related regional concepts
Sub-regions

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Includes the countries: Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Leinbach, Thomas R. (30 March 2026). "Southeast Asia". Britannica. Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 April 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  2. ^ a b "Countries". UH CSEAS. 9 November 2013. Archived from the original on 14 January 2026. Retrieved 9 April 2026.
  3. ^ a b Narayanan, Sripathi (1 October 2022). "Isthmus of Kra" (PDF). Indian Council of World Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2025. Retrieved 9 April 2026.
  4. ^ a b c Uth, Alexandra (16 September 2025). "Southeast Asia". EBSCO. Archived from the original on 11 November 2025. Retrieved 9 April 2026.
  5. ^ a b "Mainland Southeast Asia: A Folio of Thematic Maps for Military Users" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC). 1 October 1969. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2026. Retrieved 9 April 2026.
  6. ^ a b c d Wheatley, Paul (1961). The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. pp. 177–184. OCLC 504030596.
  7. ^ Kitiarsa, Pattana (2010). "Missionary Intent and Monastic Networks: Thai Buddhism as a Transnational Religion". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 25 (1): 115–116. doi:10.1355/sj25-1e. ISSN 0217-9520. JSTOR 41308138. King Asoka in the third century BC is widely cited as the model monarch who organized networks of missionaries to preach the teachings of the Buddha outside India including to Suvarnabhumi or mainland Southeast Asia.
  8. ^ Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 9788122411980. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
  9. ^ Vimalin Rujivacharakul; et al., eds. (2013). Architecturalized Asia : mapping a continent through history. Hong Kong University Press. p. 89. ISBN 9789888208050.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Lasky, Jack (2023). "Indochina (geographical term)". EBSCO Research. Archived from the original on 11 April 2026. Retrieved 10 April 2026.
  11. ^ Malte-Brun, Conrad (1827). Universal Geography, Or, A Description of All the Parts of the World, on a New Plan, According to the Great Natural Divisions of the Globe: Improved by the Addition of the Most Recent Information, Derived from Various Sources : Accompanied with Analytical, Synoptical, and Elementary Tables, Volume 2. A. Finley. pp. 262–3.
  12. ^ Wesseling, H. L. (2015). The European Colonial Empires: 1815–1919. Routledge. ISBN 9781317895060.
  13. ^ Keyes, Charles F. (1995). The golden peninsula : culture and adaptation in mainland Southeast Asia (Pbk. reprint ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780824816964.
  14. ^ Enfield, Nick J. (7 December 2017). "Language in the Mainland Southeast Asia Area". MPG.PuRe. Archived from the original on 30 May 2025. Retrieved 10 April 2026 – via Cambridge - Max-Planck-Institut fuer Psycholinguistik.
  15. ^ Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (2021). The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. Vol. 8. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston. ISBN 9783110556063. Archived from the original on 18 February 2026.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  16. ^ "Biogeographic region – Fauna". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  17. ^ "Gulf of Thailand". Deepseawaters.com. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
  18. ^ a b c "Geography". Mekong River Commission. 30 August 2024. Archived from the original on 20 January 2026. Retrieved 16 April 2026.
  19. ^ "Postcards from the Edge – Thai Mine Exploration Project". inDEPTH. 12 May 2025. Archived from the original on 13 June 2025. Retrieved 12 November 2025.
  20. ^ "Vietnam Climate". WorldData.info. Retrieved 24 November 2023.
  21. ^ "South-Eastern Asia Population (LIVE)". worldometer. 16 October 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2025.
  22. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
  23. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Cambodia – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  24. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Laos – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  25. ^ Saw Swee Hock (2007). The Population of Peninsular Malaysia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-427-8.
  26. ^ "FACT Sheet Malaysia: Rural Women in the Malaysian Economy". Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations. Retrieved 30 July 2008.
  27. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Burma – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  28. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Singapore – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 20 March 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  29. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Thailand – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  30. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Vietnam – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  31. ^ "South-Eastern Asia Population (LIVE)". worldometer. 16 October 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2025.
  32. ^ "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  33. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Nominal GDP". IMF. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  34. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Nominal GDP per capita". IMF. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  35. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Real GDP growth". IMF. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  36. ^ "World Economic Outlook (December 2020) – Inflation rate, average consumer prices". IMF. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
  37. ^ Marion Severynse, ed. (1997). The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary Of Geography. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-86448-8.
  38. ^ SIDDIQUE, SHARON (1981). "Some Aspects of Malay-Muslim Ethnicity in Peninsular Malaysia". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 3 (1): 76–87. ISSN 0129-797X. JSTOR 25797648. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  39. ^ "The Minority Muslim Experience in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Different Path". Routledge & CRC Press. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  40. ^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". www.pewforum.org. 18 May 2013. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
  41. ^ "Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages". 18 December 2012. Archived from the original on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  42. ^ "Cambodia", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 28 December 2021, archived from the original on 10 June 2021, retrieved 6 January 2022
  43. ^ "Laos", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 28 December 2021, archived from the original on 7 March 2021, retrieved 6 January 2022
  44. ^ "Malaysia", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 28 December 2021, archived from the original on 27 January 2021, retrieved 6 January 2022
  45. ^ "Burma", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 8 July 2024, archived from the original on 18 July 2024, retrieved 20 July 2024
  46. ^ "Country: Myanmar (Burma)". Joshua Project. Archived from the original on 11 September 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  47. ^ "Singapore", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 11 July 2024, archived from the original on 20 July 2024, retrieved 20 July 2024
  48. ^ "Thailand", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 28 December 2021, archived from the original on 10 June 2021, retrieved 6 January 2022
  49. ^ "East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Vietnam – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  50. ^ "The World's Cities in 2025" (PDF). United Nations. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2026. Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  51. ^ "Population in Brief 2025" (PDF). Singapore Department of Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2025. Retrieved 29 September 2025.
  52. ^ "Country codes". iso.org.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons logo
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mainland Southeast Asia.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mainland_Southeast_Asia&oldid=1349427453"