Internal conflict in Myanmar
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| Internal conflict in Myanmar | |||||||
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Map of Myanmar and its provinces |
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Anti-government factions: DKBA (since 2010)
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Former commanders:
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513,250[6] 43,000 (1951)[4] |
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210,000 killed in total (2006)[22] |
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The internal conflict in Myanmar (also known as Burma) refers to a series of civil conflicts within Myanmar that began after the country became independent from the United Kingdom in 1948. The conflict has been described as one of the world's "longest running civil wars".[24]
Contents
Background[edit]
After independence from the United Kingdom in 1948, left-wing insurgent groups such as the armed wing of the Communist Party of Burma, and rebel groups such as the Karen National Union (KNU) were founded, due to the discontent towards the newly formed post-independence government. The communists and ethnic minority groups believed that they were being unfairly excluded from running the country, and thus grew discontent towards the ruling parliament. In the early 1960s, after the central government refused to consider becoming a federal government, more ethnic minority groups began forming armed insurgent groups to fight for self-rule and self-determination. By the early 1980s, politically motivated armed insurgencies had largely disappeared, while ethnic-based insurgencies continued. Many insurgent groups have had peace negotiations and truces with successive military governments since 1962; however, most of these negotiations failed, or were temporary.[25]
Timeline[edit]
The conflict is generally divided into three parts: insurgencies during the post-independence period under parliamentary rule (1948–1962), insurgencies during post-coup military rule in the Cold War (1962–1988), and insurgencies in the post Cold War era, under military rule and the Union Solidarity and Development Party (1988–present).
Post-independence conflict (1948–1962)[edit]
Before the coup d'état of 1962, the two largest anti-government factions in Myanmar were the communists, led by the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), and ethnic Karen rebels, led by the Karen National Union (KNU). The two groups have fought the central government since Myanmar became independent from the United Kingdom. The CPB was one of the various factions which fought for Burmese independence, and had many strongholds within Myanmar. The KNU favored an independent Karen state, forged out of a large part of Outer Myanmar (Lower Burma). Because of their size, ethnic the KNU became a major rebel force in post-independence Myanmar; resulting in an increase of military reliance in Myanmar.[citation needed]
Post-coup conflict (1962–1988)[edit]
After three successive parliamentary governments ruled Myanmar, the military enacted a coup d'état, led by General Ne Win, which ousted the previous government. Widespread accusations of severe human rights violations and abuses in conflict areas immediately followed. The cabinet of the parliamentary government and leaders of ethnic rebel groups were arrested and detained without trial.[17] Major ethnic conflicts first began in the early 1960s after the central government refused to consider a federal government structure. Ne Win held peace talks with opposition parties and ethnic rebel groups in 1972, but rejected the proposal to readopt a multi-party system. After negotiations failed, private property was confiscated, and the Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) was founded in 1974. Under General Ne Win's 26 year rule, Myanmar became isolated as a hermit kingdom, and became one of the least developed countries in the world. When student protests broke out in the capital and spread throughout Myanmar in 1988, the BSPP was ousted and a military junta took over.[18]
1988 Uprising[edit]
On 8 August 1988, nation-wide student demonstrations spread throughout Myanmar, as the country's citizens protested against the socialist regime.[26] The uprising ended on 18 September 1988, after a military coup was enacted by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC).
Authorities in Myanmar claimed that around 350 people were killed[27][28] during the uprising and a high number of deaths have been attributed to the military.[29][30][31] According to the Economist, over 3,000 people were killed in the public uprising.[32] As a result of the uprising, the new government agreed to sign separate peace treaties with certain insurgent groups. Because the 1988 uprising was mostly politically motivated, ethnic rebel groups did not receive much support from ruling or opposition political parties in Myanmar. The Tatmadaw severely weakened ethnic rebel groups, destroying most of their bases and strongholds in the 1990s.
Post-Cold War conflict (1988–present)[edit]
From 2006 until 2015, the Tatmadaw conducted an immense offensive against the Karen National Union in Karen State, which resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of civilians. One estimate claimed that approximately half a million people have been displaced within eastern Myanmar due to armed conflict and forcible relocation of villages.[33][34]
In August 2007, approximately 160,000 Burmese refugees fled to the Thai border provinces of Chiang Mai and Ratchaburi, and refugee camps were established (mostly near the Myanmar–Thailand border). Approximately 62% of the refugee population consists of people of the Karen ethnic group. Humanitarian organizations have been formed to assist and support the refugees.[citation needed]
In 2011, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) launched a military offensive named "Operation Perseverance" (ဇွဲမန်ဟိန်း) against insurgents in Shan State.[35] During the offensive, the Tatmadaw captured territory from the National Democratic Alliance Army and Shan State Army (North), with the Shan State Army being involved in most of the battles. The offensive was in response to rebel factions refusing to accept Myanmar's "One Nation, One Army" policy.[36][37][38][39][40][41]
In 2007, hundreds of thousands of monks defied the government's rule, but were severely cracked down upon. In 2010, the government introduced a new constitution, and Aung San Su Kyi and thousands of other political prisoners were released.
On 19 November 2014, Myanmar soldiers attacked the Kachin Independence Army's headquarters near the city of Laiza, killing at least 22 rebels.[42]
Main fronts[edit]
Kachin State[edit]
The Kachin ethnic group of Northern Burma have fought a political struggle for regional autonomy against the central government since 1961. Ceasefire agreements have been signed by the Kachin Independence Army and the government, but fighting has always resumed. There were two negotiations between Kachin rebels and government in 1962 and 1994. The Burmese military government refused to implement a multi-party system in 1962 and the agreement was abolished. After a ceasefire agreement with a second military government in 1994, there were 17 years of peace between the Kachin rebels and the government. In 2012 fighting between the KIA and the government claimed at least 2,500 lives.[21][43]
The Kachin population only makes up less than 2% of the population of Myanmar. Despite this however, the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) has around 4,000 personnel. Most Kachin people are Christians, while most Burmese are Buddhists, leading to a religious divide between the two peoples.[44] As a result of the conflict between the KIA and the central government, over 100,000 people were displaced between the 1960s and 1990s in Kachin State. Presently, around 67,000 people are internally displaced, ever since renewed fighting in 2011.[45]
Before the end of the Cold War, many rebel organizations were financed by foreign powers. Presently, insurgent groups have been forced to find other ways to bankroll themselves; many have turned to illegal trade of natural resources.[46] The Kachin Independence Army has been able to maintain a strong army by exploiting the natural resources on territory it controls. This has led to complications in negotiations between the KIA and the central government, as to who rightfully owns the resources.[47] Additionally, ethnic and religious divides have made the conflict between the two more difficult to resolve, because of the commitment of the KIA to gain some level of autonomy or independence.[48]
Kayah State (Karenni State)[edit]
For the past few decades, the goal of the Karenni Army had been to obtain independence for Kayah State, formerly known as Karreni State.[49] According to a pro-Karenni Army website, the group's grievances include: "Exploitation and rapid depletion of the natural resources, forced sale of agricultural products, extortion, forced labour, forced relocation of whole villages and crops, destruction of houses, planting of mines around crops and villages, torture, rape, extra-judicial killings, burning of villages, expropriation of food supplies and livestock, arrest without charge, false accusations and exploitation of the poor." [49] The Karenni Army is currently led by General Bee Htoo,[49] and consists of between 800 and 1,500 soldiers.[10]
Kayin State (Karen State)[edit]
The Karen people is one of Burma's largest ethnic minorities, consisting of around 7% of Myanmar's total population. The Karen people have struggled for independence since 1949, after the Army Chief of Staff, General Smith Dun, a Karen, was fired and replaced by Ne Win, a Burmese nationalist.[50] The initial aim of the Karen National Union (KNU) was independence for Kayin State (also known as Karen State), but since 1976 the people have called for a federal system with Karen representation, rather than an independent Karen state. However, all demands and negotiations have been refused by successive governments of Myanmar. By early 1995, the headquarter and main operating bases of the KNU were lost, with 3,500 to 4,000 men remaining under arms. Up until that year, the government of Thailand had been supporting rebels across its border, but soon stopped its support due to new economic deals with Myanmar. A 30 year gas supply deal was made between the two governments, which helped supply natural gas to Thailand's major cities, and add $400 million to Myanmar's annual budget.[51]
Rakhine State (Arakan State)[edit]
Internal conflict has been ongoing in Rakhine State ever since 1947, with ongoing racial prejudice towards Rohingyas. The political rights of the Rohingya people have been an underlying issue in the conflict; bouts of violence such as the 2012 Rakhine State riots have periodically occurred as a result. The Rohingya people, who number about 800,000 in the three northernmost Rakhine townships, have been legally discriminated against in Myanmar for decades. They have also not been recognized by the government as one of the ethnic groups in Myanmar, and thus do not have citizenship.[citation needed] The Arakan Army have fought government forces in Rakhine state since its founding in 2009.[52]
Shan State[edit]
Shan leaders began fighting the central government after the government failed to fulfill promises and negotiations made in the 1947 Panglong Agreement. The agreement guaranteed the rights of self-determination, equality and financial management. The agreement was between the ethnic Shan and Burmese leader (General Aung San), who convinced the Shan leaders to join him in gaining independence from the United Kingdom. The agreement also gave the Shan, Kachin, and Chin states the option to separate from Myanmar after 10 years if the state leaders were not happy with the Burmese government. This however, was not honored.[5]
Shan rebel factions first began appearing after the Burmese government sent thousands of troops into Shan State, in response to a large number of Kuomintang soldiers fleeing from communist forces in China in 1950. The Kuomintang had planned to use the region east of the Salween river as a base from which to launch offensives into China. By March 1953, Kuomintang soldiers, allegedly with assistance from the United States, were on the verge of occupying nearly the entire Shan State, and within a day's march of the state capital, Taunggyi. However, Kuomintang forces were driven back by Burmese soldiers, across the Salween river. A small Kuomintang presence was still in eastern Shan State after their defeat.[5]
During the Burmese military presence in Shan state, the local Shan people were allegedly mistreated, tortured, unlawfully arrested, robbed, killed and raped by military personnel. As a result, on 21 May 1958, the Shan people began to arm themselves and attack the Burmese soldiers. The resistance movement, led by Sao Noi and Saw Yanna, fought for the independence and freedom of Shan State and its people. Today, the strongest resistance group in Shan State is the Shan State Army (SSA) led by Sao Yawd Serk. The SSA maintains bases along the Shan-Thai border. The SSA signed a ceasefire agreement with the Thein Sein's government on 2 Dec 2011.
The government and SSA agreed in principle to the following 11 points on 16 January 2012:[citation needed][needs update]
- To allow SSA headquarters in Homain sub-township and Mong Hat sub-township
- To negotiate and arrange the resettlement of SSA troops and their families in the locations mentioned in the first point
- The appointment by the SSA of village heads in the region, which would work with government official for township administration;
- Government soldiers in Homain sub-township and Mong Hat sub-township will give help to the SSA
- Both sides will discuss and negotiate to arrange for the security of SSA leaders
- Government troops and the SSA would negotiate to designate areas where they could enter border areas;
- Each side agreed to inform the other side in advance if one side wants to enter the other's control area with weapons
- To open liaison offices between the government and the SSA-S in Taunggyi, Kholam, Kengtung, Mong Hsat and Tachileik and trading offices in Muse and Nanhkam
- Government ministers will arrange for SSA-S members to run businesses and companies in accord with existing policies, by providing aid and the required technology
- To cooperate with the union government for regional development
- To cooperate with the government in making plan for battling drug trafficking
Political discontent[edit]
Some rebel factions, such as the Karen National Union, have fought for independence from Myanmar since 1949. Other rebel factions have fought for regional autonomy, or a federal style government, in which every province would receive some level of provincial government. Past ceasefire agreements and treaties have failed to recognize rebel demands for political freedom and/or self-determination, resulting in most, but not all, of the ceasefires being temporary.[25][53]
During the 1988 uprising, Aung San Suu Kyi emerged as a national symbol for democracy, after leading the largest opposition party, the National League for Democracy (NLD). The military junta arranged an election in 1990 and Aung San Suu Kyi's party, the National League for Democracy (NLD) won a majority of the vote. However, the military junta refused to recognize the results and instead placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest for 15 years.
Aung Sun Su Kyi has been silenced by the Myanmar government in the past, put under house arrest, and has been struggling to run for president for many years. In November 2014, the NLD, attempted to make amendments to the constitution, in response to a clause that made Aung San Suu Kyi ineligible to run for president. These amendments however, were rejected.[54]
Human rights violations[edit]
The conflict has resulted in a large number of both civilian deaths and refugees, with many refugees fleeing to Western Thailand, around Tak Province. The UN estimates that between 1996 and 2006, around 1 million people were displaced inside Myanmar, and that over 230,000 people remain displaced in Southeast Myanmar, and 128,000 refugees live in temporary shelters on the Thai-Myanmar border.[55][56] Civilians have also been removed from their homes by the central government, and their land confiscated, in order for development projects and the extraction of natural resources.[55][57] Civilians have also been removed from their homes by the central government, and their land confiscated, in order for development projects and resource exploitation.[57][58]
According to Refugee International, there are currently about 75,000 Rohingya refugees in Myanmar.[59] UNICEF has reported that living conditions in Rohingya refugee camps in Rakhine State are "wholly inadequate" and lacks access to basic services.[60] Historically, the persecution of Burmese Indians and other ethnic minority groups in Myanmar after the 1962 coup has led to the expulsion of nearly 300,000 people.[61] More than 200,000 Rohingya Muslims have fled to Bangladesh over the last 20 years to escape persecution.[62] The Rohingya people have been described by the United Nations as "among the world's least wanted" and "one of the world's most persecuted minorities."[63] Al-Qaeda leader Ayman Al-Zawahiri has also threatened Myanmar with terrorist attacks, after their "terror network" expanded into India, Bangladesh and Myanmar.[64]
Both sides have been accused of using landmines, which have caused hundreds of accidental civilian injuries and deaths. The Karen National Union (KNU) has been accused of planting landmines in rural areas, most of which have not been disarmed. Victims of landmines must travel to the Thai-Myanmar border to seek treatment, as local hospitals and facilities lack proper equipment and funding.[65]
Both sides have also been accused of using thousands of child soldiers, despite the fact that the government of Myanmar and seven insurgent groups signed a treaty with UNICEF in 2012, promising not to exploit children for military and political gains. The International Labor Organization believes that child soldiers are still being exploited by both sides to the present day. According to the ILO, the Tatmadaw discharged hundreds of child soldiers since 2012; however, they estimate that at least 340 child soldiers will be recruited by the Tatmadaw by 2014.[66]
International Responses[edit]
In November 2009, the UN General Assembly, condemned Myanmar's government and previous military juntas for the systematic violations of human rights, and urged the current government to take urgent measures to end violations of international human rights and humanitarian laws.[67] This was partially honored after the 2011 constitution and government reforms. According to research from Harvard University’s International Human Rights Clinic (IHRC), three Burmese generals, including the current Domestic Affairs minister, have committed war crimes and crimes against humanity in Southeast Myanmar under previous military regime.[68] The government of Myanmar has been accused of using "scorched earth" tactics against the Karen people in the past, including (but are limited to) burning down entire villages, planting land mines, using civilians as slave labor, using civilians as minesweepers, and the rape and murder of Karen women.[69] According to a report by legal firm DLA Piper, whose report was presented to the United Nations Security Council, these tactics against the Karen have been identified as ethnic cleansing.[70]
Foreign support[edit]
Many rebel factions have been supported by other states in the past: the Karen people received support from the United Kingdom; along the shared border, Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) assisted Rohingya Muslims, with other states in the Middle East also supporting them; the People's Republic of China assisted the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) (later the United Wa State Army), the Naga and Kachin Independence Army; the United States supported the Kuomintang; and Thailand assisted a wide variety of rebel groups by creating buffer states or zones.[1] A renowned Australian criminal, Dave Everett also fought alongside and trained Karen rebel factions, sympathizing with them to the point of committing armed robbery in order to fund his weapon smuggling operation in Myanmar.[71]
Thai involvement[edit]
Thailand has been a major contributor of supplies and arms since the conflict began.[citation needed] Thai leaders have a deep distrust for Myanmar, who have historically invaded Thailand in past centuries.[2] Weapons and ammunition from Thailand have allowed insurgent groups to remain active in the ongoing conflict with the Tatmadaw.[2]
Thailand's support was evident during the 1999 Burmese Embassy Siege. While the United Nations, together with the United States and Myanmar governments, referred to the siege as an "act of terrorism", the Thai government responded differently, stating: "the captors are students working for democracy, not terrorists".[72]
Ceasefire negotiations[edit]
Under the new constitutional reforms in 2011, state level and union level ceasefire agreements were made with many rebel factions. 14 out of 17 of the largest rebel factions signed a ceasefire agreement with the new reformed government. According to the Myanmar Peace Monitoring group, clashes between Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), its allies, and the government, has displaced hundreds of thousands of people, and create another severe humanitarian crisis in Kachin and northern Shan State.[73] All of the 14 signatories wanted negotiations in accordance with the Pang Long Agreement of 1948, which granted self-determination, a federal system of government (meaning regionol autonomy), religious freedom, and ethnic minority rights. However, the new constitution, only had a few clauses dedicated to minority rights, and therefore, the government discussed with rebel factions using the new constitution for reference, rather than the Pang Long Agreement. There was no inclusive plan or body that represented all the factions, and as a result, in resent, the KNU backed out of the conference and complained the lack of independence for each party within the ethnic bloc.[53] However, most of the negotiations between the State Peace Deal Commission and rebel factions were formal and peaceful.[74]
In April 2015, a draft Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement was finalized between representatives from fifteen different insurgent groups (all part of the Nationwide Ceasefire Coordination Team or NCCT), and the Government of Myanmar.[75]
In October 2015, after two years of negotiations, the government of Myanmar announced that it will finalize and sign a ceasefire agreement with eight insurgent groups, including the Karen National Union. However, only 8 out of the 15 original signatories signed the ceasefire agreement on 15 October 2015, after seven of members of the NCCT backed out of negotiations in September 2015. The signing was witnessed by observers and delegates from the United Nations, the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan, and the United States.[33][34]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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- ^ a b c Alfred W. McCoy, with Cathleen B. Read and Leonard P. Adams II. "The Shan Rebellion: The Road to Chaos", from The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (2003 ed.). drugtext.org. ISBN 1-55652-483-8. Retrieved 8 December 2011.[dead link][dead link]
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- ^ a b c d Richard, p. 88
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- ^ Heppner & Becker, 2002: 18
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- ^ a b KIA says 211 army soldiers die in two-month fighting in Hpakant, 10 Oct. 2012, http://www.kachinnews.com/news/2418-kia-says-211-army-soldiers-die-in-two-month-fighting-in-hpakant.html
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- ^ A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in South East Asia, editor=Tan, Andrew T. H., chapter=Chapter 16, State Terrorism in Arakan, author=Islam, Syed Serajul Islam. Edward Elgar Publishing. 2007. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-84542-543-2.
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- ^ DLA Piper Rudnick Gray Cary. Threat to the Peace: A Call for the UN Security Council to Act in Burma (2005). http://www.dlapiper.com/files/Publication/ed49fff4-6c18-4bcf-a550-64b4734eb9c3/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/5320f731-eaf2-45ff-9735-6541f3561f5b/BurmaReport.pdf
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- ^ http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/03/myanmar-government-rebels-reach-ceasefire-deal-150331194752849.html "Myanmar government and rebels agree on ceasefire draft."
Further reading[edit]
- Kipgen, Nehginpao. "Democracy Movement in Myanmar: Problems and Challenges." New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co., 2014. Print.
External links[edit]
| Wikinews has related news: |
- Mizzima News India-based news group run by exiled dissidents. See also: Mizzima News
- Democratic Voice of Burma Norwegian-based radio station that provides news to the people of Burma
- BBC News: The fighting spirit of Burma's Karen (2007)
- Help without frontiers – German relief organisation working for Shan and Karen refugees living in Camps on the border line to Thailand and inside of Burma
- MyanmaThadin Myanmar (Burma) News & Community Hub
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- Internal conflict in Myanmar
- 2010s civil wars
- 20th-century conflicts
- 21st-century conflicts
- History of Myanmar
- Politics of Myanmar
- Wars involving Myanmar
- Ethnic conflicts
- Revolution-based civil wars
- Ethnicity-based civil wars
- Communism-based civil wars
- Coup-based civil wars
- Religion-based civil wars
- Separatist rebellion-based civil wars
- Civil wars post-1945
- Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia
- Ongoing conflicts