Krill oil
Krill oil is made from a species of krill [Euphausia superba]. Three of the most important nutrients in krill oil are: (1) omega-3 fatty acids similar to those of fish oil, (2) omega-3 fatty acids attached (conjugated) to phospholipids, mainly phosphatidylcholine (alternatively referred to as marine lecithin) and (3) astaxanthin, an antioxidant.[1] The fatty acid composition in the phospholipids in krill oil has been described in two papers.[2][3]
A clinical study conducted at the University of Montreal using a branded krill oil concluded that it can significantly reduce dysmenorrhea, a gynecological medical condition characterized by severe uterine pain during menstruation, and the emotional symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.[4]
Other suppliers claim to offer comparable or more potent complexes using similar fractions of the krill complex, produced through a different process altogether.
Several studies have shown toxic residues in Antarctic krill and fish.[5][6]
Ecological concerns
The harvesting of Antarctic krill is relatively new. The vast majority is harvested for feed for fish farms. A small percentage (2 percent in the 2009-2010 season)[citation needed] is harvested for human consumption.
Krill is considered by many scientists to be the largest biomass in the world. Antarctic krill is fundamental to the survival of almost every species of animal that lives in the Antarctic or sub-Antarctic waters and island groups.[7] Because Antarctic krill are so important, in 1982, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Chile, European Community, Germany and Japan formed a treaty organization to ensure that krill were being harvested sustainably. Named the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources [8] (CCAMLR-pronounced camel-lahr), it now manages the fin fish (mostly toothfish) and krill fisheries in the Southern Ocean. Scientists from some of the CCAMLR member nations, including Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom, conduct research in the Southern Ocean and make recommendations to CCAMLR that enable the organization to make management decisions. Currently there are 25 Members of CCAMLR, 24 member states and the European Community.
CCAMLR has successfully implemented a precautionary and ecosystem approach in managing the krill fishery. The krill fishery is considered by some of those scientists to be among the best managed fisheries in the world, providing strict catch limits on licensed vessels, and scientific observers on board. CCAMLR scientists are working to take into account the possible effects of climate change on the ecosystem as well as effects of changes in technology and operational pattern of krill fishing vessels on the fishery when making management decisions.
References
- ^ Astaxanthin - Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals
- ^ Grandois LG, Marchioni E, Zhao M, Giuffrida F, Ennahar S, Bindler F (2009). "Investigation of natural phosphatidylcholine sources: separation and identification by liquid chromatography - electronspray ionization - tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS2) of molecular species". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (14): 6014–6020. doi:10.1021/jf900903e. PMID 19545117.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Winther B, Hoem N, Berge K, Reubsaet L (2010). "Elucidation of phosphatidylcholine composition in krill oil extracted from Euphausia Superba". Lipids. 46 (1): 25–36. doi:10.1007/s11745-010-3472-6. PMC 3024512. PMID 20848234.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Sampalis F, Bunea R, Pelland MF, Kowalski O, Duguet N, Dupuis S (2003). "Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on the management of premenstrual syndrome and dysmenorrhea" (PDF). Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic. 8 (2): 171–9. PMID 12777162.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Corsolini S, Covaci A, Ademollo N, Focardi S, Schepens P (2006). "Occurrence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and their enantiomeric signatures, and concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the Adélie penguin food web, Antarctica". Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987). 140 (2): 371–82. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.039. PMID 16183185.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Covaci A, Voorspoels S, Vetter W; et al. (2007). "Anthropogenic and naturally occurring organobrominated compounds in fish oil dietary supplements". Environmental science & technology. 41 (15): 5237–44. doi:10.1021/es070239g. PMID 17822085.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ The Antarctic Krill Conservation Project
- ^ http://www.ccamlr.org/
Further reading
- "Krill oil sustainability". Wellwise. Retrieved 2010-12-01.
- Venkatraman JT, Chandrasekar B, Kim JD, Fernandes G (1994). "Effects of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on the activities and expression of hepatic antioxidant enzymes in autoimmune-prone NZBxNZW F1 mice". Lipids. 29 (8): 561–8. doi:10.1007/BF02536628. PMID 7990663.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Bunea R, El Farrah K, Deutsch L. (2004). "Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on the clinical course of hyperlipidemia". Altern Med Rev. 9 (4): 420–8. PMID 15656713.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)