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List of communist states

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A map of current communist states

A communist state is a form of government that combines the state leadership of a communist party through the supreme state organ of power, Marxism–Leninism or a related political philosophy, and an official commitment to the construction of a communist society. Communism in its modern form grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe and blamed capitalism for societal miseries. In the 20th century, several communist states were established, first in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then in portions of Eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after World War II. The institutions of these states were heavily influenced by the writings of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and others. However, the political reforms of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev known as Perestroika and socio-economic difficulties produced the revolutions of 1989, which brought down all the communist states of the Eastern Bloc bar the Soviet Union. The repercussions of the collapse of these states contributed to political transformations in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia and several other non-European communist states. Presently, there are five communist states in the world: China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam.[1]

Overview

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Socialist states

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A map of all socialist states in 1980.

In applied communist practice, a socialist state is a communist state formation that is the product of a purported base and superstructural relation that is called the socialist mode of production, or simply socialism. Socialism acts as the base of the socialist state, while the superstructure is made up of two parts: the class character of the state and the organisational form of state power.

The majority of communist states have been unable to establish a socialist state. These states had, according to Marxist–Leninist doctrine, reached a lower form of development and designated themselves, or were designated, for example, as national democratic states, states of socialist orientation or as people's democratic states.

Overview of communist states that have self-described as socialist
State Established Dissolved Duration Leading party Supreme state organ of power Ref.
Albania 28 December 1976 29 April 1991 14 years, 122 days Party of Labour[a] People's Assembly [2]
Bulgaria 18 May 1971 12 July 1991 20 years, 55 days Communist Party National Assembly [3]
China 17 November 1975 — 50 years, 268 days Communist Party National People's Congress [4]
Cuba 24 February 1976 — 50 years, 169 days Communist Party[b] National Assembly of People's Power [5]
Czechoslovakia 11 July 1960 29 March 1990 29 years, 261 days Communist Party Federal Assembly [6]
East Germany 8 April 1968 3 October 1990 22 years, 178 days Socialist Unity Party People's Chamber [7]
Hungary 26 April 1972 23 October 1989 17 years, 180 days Socialist Workers' Party[c] National Assembly [8]
Mongolia 6 July 1960 12 February 1990 29 years, 221 days People's Revolutionary Party Great People's Khural [9]
North Korea 27 December 1972 — 53 years, 228 days Workers' Party Supreme People's Assembly [10]
Poland 10 February 1976 9 December 1989 13 years, 302 days United Workers' Party Sejm [11]
Romania 21 August 1965 30 December 1989 24 years, 131 days Communist Party[d] Great National Assembly [12]
Somalia 21 October 1969 26 January 1991 21 years, 97 days Revolutionary Socialist Party People's Assembly [13]
Soviet Union 30 December 1922[I] 26 December 1991 68 years, 361 days[II] Communist Party Supreme Soviet [17]
Vietnam 2 July 1976 — 50 years, 41 days Communist Party National Assembly [18]
Yugoslavia 7 April 1963 27 April 1992 29 years, 20 days League of Communists[e] Assembly [19]

People's democratic states

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A people's democratic state is a communist state formation. According to the Marxist–Leninist theory of people's democracy, it purportedly tries to transition society from a capitalist mode of production to a socialist mode of production after a successful people's democratic revolution. This process transforms the people's democratic state into a socialist state. According to Marxist–Leninist theorists, the people's democratic state is socialist-type state, but not a socialist state itself.[citation needed] The form of government of people's democratic states is unified state power of the supreme state organ of power, under the leadership of the ruling communist party. Despite this, forms of government have not always been identical in different states, with some slight institutional differences.[citation needed]

Overview of communist states that have self-described as people's democratic
State Dates active Duration Leading party Supreme state organ of power Ref.
Afghanistan[III] 30 April 1978–27 December 1979 1 year, 241 days People's Democratic Party Revolutionary Council [21]
Albania 11 January 1946–28 December 1976 30 years, 352 days Party of Labour[a] People's Assembly [22]
Angola 10 December 1977–26 August 1992 14 years, 260 days People's Movement for the Liberation People's Assembly [23]
Benin 23 May 1977–1 March 1990 12 years, 282 days People's Revolutionary Party National Revolutionary Assembly [24]
Bulgaria 4 December 1947–18 May 1971 24 years, 245 days Communist Party National Assembly [25]
Cambodia 7 January 1979–15 March 1992 13 years, 68 days People's Revolutionary Party National Assembly [26]
China 1 October 1949–17 November 1975 26 years, 47 days Communist Party National People's Congress [27]
Congo 31 December 1969–15 March 1992 22 years, 75 days Party of Labour National People's Assembly [28]
Cuba 16 February 1959–24 February 1976 17 years, 8 days Communist Party[b] National Assembly of People's Power [29]
Czechoslovakia 25 February 1948–11 July 1960 12 years, 137 days Communist Party National Assembly [30]
East Germany 9 October 1949–8 April 1968 18 years, 182 days Socialist Unity Party People's Chamber [31]
Ethiopia 22 February 1987–28 May 1991 4 years, 95 days Workers' Party National Shengo [32]
Hungary 18 August 1949–26 April 1972 22 years, 250 days Socialist Workers' Party[c] National Assembly [33]
Kampuchea 17 April 1975–7 January 1979 3 years, 2 days Communist Party Assembly of People's Representatives [34]
Laos 2 December 1975 — People's Revolutionary Party National Assembly [35]
Mongolia 24 November 1924–6 July 1960 35 years, 225 days People's Revolutionary Party Great People's Khural [36]
Mozambique 25 June 1975–30 November 1990 15 years, 158 days Liberation Front People's Assembly [37]
North Korea 9 September 1948–27 December 1972 24 years, 109 days Workers' Party Supreme People's Assembly [38]
North Vietnam 2 September 1945–2 July 1976 30 years, 304 days Workers' Party National Assembly [39]
Poland 14 December 1948–10 February 1976 27 years, 58 days United Workers' Party Sejm [40]
Romania 30 December 1947–21 August 1965 17 years, 234 days Communist Party[d] Great National Assembly [41]
South Vietnam 30 April 1975[IV]–2 July 1976 1 year, 63 days[V] People's Revolutionary Party People's Assembly [43]
South Yemen 30 November 1970–20 May 1990 19 years, 171 days Socialist Party Supreme People's Council [44]
Tuva[VI] 14 August 1921–11 October 1944 23 years, 58 days People's Revolutionary Party People's Khural [46]
Yugoslavia 20 November 1945–7 April 1963 17 years, 138 days League of Communists[e] Federal People's Assembly [47]

National democratic states

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A national democratic state is a state formation that, according to Marxist–Leninist national democratic theory, is the product of a national democratic revolution. In certain cases, it was believed, a national democratic state could endeavour to establish the socialist mode of production, transforming the state into a communist state formation known as a socialist state in the process.

Overview of communist states that have self-described as national democratic
State Established Dissolved Duration Leading party Ref.
Afghanistan[VII] 27 December 1979 28 April 1992 12 years, 123 days People's Democratic Party [48]
Angola 11 November 1975 10 December 1977 2 years, 29 days People's Movement for the Liberation [49]
Congo 16 August 1963 31 December 1969 6 years, 137 days National Movement of the Revolution [50]
Ethiopia 12 September 1974 22 February 1987 12 years, 163 days Workers' Party [51]
Grenada 13 March 1979 29 October 1983 4 years, 230 days New Jewel Movement [52]

Communist predecessor states to the USSR

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Overview of communist predecessor states to the USSR
State Established Dissolved Duration Ref.
Armenia 29 November 1920 30 December 1922 2 years, 31 days [53]
Azerbaijan 2 September 1920 27 October 1922 1 year, 318 days [54]
Bukhara 8 October 1920 27 October 1924 4 years, 19 days [55]
Byelorussia, 1st attempt 1 January 1919 27 February 1919 57 days [56]
Byelorussia, 2nd attempt 31 July 1920 31 December 1922 2 years, 153 days [57]
Crimea 12 May 1919 26 June 1919 45 days [58]
Donetsk–Krivoy Rog 12 February 1918 20 March 1918 36 days [59]
Estonia 29 November 1918 5 June 1919 188 days [60]
Far Eastern Republic 6 April 1920 15 November 1922 2 years, 223 days [61]
Galicia 8 July 1920 21 September 1920 75 days [62]
Georgia 25 February 1921 30 December 1922 1 year, 308 days [63]
Khorezm 26 April 1920 24 October 1924 4 years, 181 days [64]
Latvia 17 December 1918 13 January 1920 1 year, 27 days [65]
Lithuania 16 December 1918 27 February 1919 73 days [66]
Lithuania and Belorussia 27 February 1919 31 July 1920 1 year, 155 days [66]
Mughan 15 May 1919 25 June 1919 41 days [67]
Odessa 1 March 1918 13 March 1918 12 days [68]
Russia 7 November 1917 30 December 1922 5 years, 53 days [69]
Ukraine, 1st attempt 25 December 1917 18 April 1918 114 days [70]
Ukraine, 2nd attempt 10 March 1919 30 December 1922 3 years, 295 days [71]

Ephemeral states

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Overview of ephemeral communist states
State Established Dissolved Duration Ref.
Azerbaijan 20 November 1945 12 December 1946 1 year, 22 days [72]
Bavaria 7 April 1919 2 May 1919 25 days [73]
Bremen 10 January 1919 4 February 1919 21 days [65]
Chile 4 June 1932 13 September 1932 101 days [74]
China 7 November 1931 22 September 1937 5 years, 319 days [75]
Fatsa 14 October 1979 11 June 1980 241 days [76]
Finland, 1st attempt 29 January 1918 5 May 1918 96 days [77]
Finland, 2nd attempt 1 December 1939 12 March 1940 102 days [78]
Hungary 21 March 1919 3 August 1919 135 days [79]
Mahabad 22 January 1946 15 December 1946 327 days [80]
Persia 20 May 1920 20 September 1920 123 days [81]
Slovakia 16 June 1919 7 July 1919 21 days [65]
East Turkestan 7 November 1944 1 July 1946[VIII] 1 year, 236 days [82]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ↑ The Soviet Union was established on 30 December 1922, but was not declared a socialist state until 5 December 1936, when the second Soviet constitution was adopted.[14] Vladimir Lenin, the first leader of the Soviet Union, was unsure how to categorise the Soviet state. He made it clear that he did not believe either the state or society of the Soviet Union to be socialist.[15] Joseph Stalin, who eventually succeeded Lenin, initiated policies in the late 1920s to create socialism in the Soviet Union. His theory of the socialist state was formulated in the mid-1930s. He claimed that the Soviet Union had become a socialist state in the 1930s, and the constitution formalised it in 1936.[16]
  2. ↑ If one only counts the period the Soviet Union self-designated as a socialist state, the USSR was socialist for 55 years, 21 days.[14]
  3. ↑ The first communist leaders of communist Afghanistan, Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin, believed they had created a people's democratic state. An internal party faction, the Parcham, believed they had created a national democratic state. The Soviets agreed with the former.[20]
  4. ↑ The Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam was formally established on 8 June 1969, but did not capture state power until the fall of the US-backed Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975.[42]
  5. ↑ If one counts days from the formal establishment of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam in June 1969, it existed for 7 years, 24 days.[42]
  6. ↑ The Tuvan People's Republic did not claim to have reached socialism or to have created a socialist state. The Soviet Union believed its material base, meaning its socio-economic level, was too low to establish socialism, and it was believed it was on the path of non-capitalist development. It was termed a people's republic, but at this time, the Soviets had not created a cohesive theoretical framework to explain what the Tuvan People's Republic was. The first such attempt came later in the form of people's democracy.[45]
  7. ↑ The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan produced a new Afghan state leadership headed by Babrak Karmal. This leadership believed the Saur Revolution had produced a national democratic state: the Soviets concurred.[20]
  8. ↑ East Turkestan was reformed to the Ili District Council and became a part of the Coalition Government of Xinjiang Province.
  1. 1 2 Named the Communist Party of Albania from 1941 until 1948.
  2. 1 2 From 1962 to 1965 the United Party of the Socialist Revolution of Cuba
  3. 1 2 From 1948-1956 the Hungarian Working People's Party
  4. 1 2 From 1948-1965 the Romanian Workers' Party
  5. 1 2 From 1919 to 1952 known as the Communist Party of Yugoslavia

Footnotes

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  1. ↑ World Book Encyclopedia, 2026 ed., s.v. "Communism"
  2. ↑ Vucinich 1951, p. 345; Prifti 1978, pp. 45–47.
  3. ↑ Radenkova 1978, p. 59; Holmes 1981, p. 125; Crampton 1987, pp. 164−165.
  4. ↑ Lindsay 1976, p. 56; Rickett 1982, pp. 108 & 115; Zhai 2016, p. 145; Lu 2021, p. 82.
  5. ↑ Bui 2024, pp. 45−47.
  6. ↑ Kalvoda 1961, pp. 220−221; Skilling 1962, pp. 142 & 155.
  7. ↑ McCauley 1979, p. 173 & 204.
  8. ↑ Vastagh 2017, pp. 224 & 231.
  9. ↑ Ginsburgs 1961, pp. 141 & 146.
  10. ↑ Chung 1986, pp. 21–22.
  11. ↑ Granat & Granat 2019, pp. 24–25.
  12. ↑ Kase 1968, p. 136; Höhmann, Kaser & Thalheim 1975, p. 174.
  13. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 99–101.
  14. 1 2 Davies et al. 2018, p. 32.
  15. ↑ Thomas 1952, p. 11; Boer 2023, p. 74.
  16. ↑ Boer 2017, pp. 314–315; Davies et al. 2018, p. 32.
  17. ↑ Brown 2009, p. 74; Davies et al. 2018, p. 32.
  18. ↑ Pike 1977, pp. 37–38.
  19. ↑ Kase 1968, p. 151.
  20. 1 2 Cordovez & Harrison 1995, pp. 28 & 403.
  21. ↑ Cordovez & Harrison 1995, p. 403.
  22. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Vucinich 1951, p. 345; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 50–52.
  23. ↑ James 2011, p. 174.
  24. ↑ Decalo 1981, p. 95.
  25. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Radenkova 1978, p. 59; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 52–54; Crampton 1987, pp. 164–165.
  26. ↑ Vickery 1986, p. 98; Nilsson 2018, p. 125.
  27. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Lindsay 1976, p. 56; Rickett 1982, p. 108; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 71–75; Zhai 2016, p. 145.
  28. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 94–95; Radu & Somerville 1989, pp. 194–195.
  29. ↑ Kase 1968, p. 17; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 87–93.
  30. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kalvoda 1961, p. 220; Skilling 1962, pp. 142 & 147; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 57–60.
  31. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; McCauley 1979, pp. 22 & 49; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 76–79.
  32. ↑ Limberg 1990, p. 89.
  33. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 69–71; Vastagh 2017, pp. 203−204.
  34. ↑ Quinn 1977, pp. 43−44; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 106–108; Frings 1997, p. 828.
  35. ↑ Stuart-Fox 1986, p. 174; Stuart-Fox 1991, p. 302.
  36. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, p. 11; Sablin & Zhamsoev 2025, pp. 287−290.
  37. ↑ Ottaway & Ottaway 1981, p. 77.
  38. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, p. 16; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 60–63; Kim 2022, pp. 75−76.
  39. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, pp. 16–17; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 47–49; Le 2024, pp. 89–91.
  40. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, p. 16; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 64–69; Granat & Granat 2019, p. 24.
  41. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, p. 16; Höhmann, Kaser & Thalheim 1975, p. 174; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 55–57.
  42. 1 2 Szajkowski 1982, pp. 1 & 135.
  43. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 89—91 & 135.
  44. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 96–99.
  45. ↑ Kase 1968, pp. 11−13.
  46. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 36–38.
  47. ↑ Skilling 1961a, pp. 241 & 258; Kase 1968, p. 16; Szajkowski 1982, pp. 44–47.
  48. ↑ Gupta 1986, p. 45; Cordovez & Harrison 1995, p. 403.
  49. ↑ Ottaway & Ottaway 1981, p. 6.
  50. ↑ Vine 2004, p. 142–144.
  51. ↑ Ottaway & Ottaway 1981, pp. 136–137; Schwab 1981, p. 305.
  52. ↑ Puri 2014, pp. 41–42.
  53. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 35.
  54. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 30–31.
  55. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 33–35.
  56. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 23–24.
  57. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 24.
  58. ↑ Dufaud 2012, pp. 263–264.
  59. ↑ Toal 2017, p. 356.
  60. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 21–22.
  61. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 29–30.
  62. ↑ Smele 2015, p. 439.
  63. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 36.
  64. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 28–29.
  65. 1 2 3 Szajkowski 1982, p. 23.
  66. 1 2 Szajkowski 1982, p. 22.
  67. ↑ Smele 2015, p. 771.
  68. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 20; Toal 2017, p. 356.
  69. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 18–19.
  70. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 19–20; Toal 2017, p. 356.
  71. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 20.
  72. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 49–50.
  73. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 26.
  74. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 39.
  75. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 71–75.
  76. ↑ Zürcher 2004, p. 267.
  77. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 20–21.
  78. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 43–44.
  79. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 25–26.
  80. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 50.
  81. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, pp. 31–33.
  82. ↑ Szajkowski 1982, p. 44.

References

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Books

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  • Boer, Roland (2023). Socialism in Power: On the History and Theory of Socialist Governance. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-19-5413-9.
  • Brown, Archie (2009). The Rise and Fall of Communism. The Bodley Head. ISBN 9780224078795.
  • Bui, Ngoc Son (2024). Legal Reform in the Contemporary Socialist World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192671585.
  • Cordovez, Diego; Harrison, Selig S. (1995). Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195362688.
  • Crampton, R. J. (1987). A Short History of Modern Bulgaria. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521273237.
  • Davies, R. W.; Harrison, Mark; Khlevniuk, Oleg; Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2018). The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia: The Soviet Economy and the Approach of War, 1937–1939. Vol. 7. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137362384.
  • Granat, Mirosław; Granat, Katarzyna (2019). The Constitution of Poland: A Contextual Analysis. Hart. ISBN 9781509913961.
  • Gupta, Bhabani Sen (1986). Afghanistan: Politics, Economics and Society. Frances Pinter Publishers. ISBN 0861873912.
  • Höhmann, Hans-Hermann; Kaser, Michael Charles; Thalheim, Karl Christian (1975). The New Economic Systems of Eastern Europe. University of California Press. ISBN 0520027329.
  • James, W. Martin (2011). Historical Dictionary of Angola. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810874589.
  • Kase, Francis J. (1968). People's Democracy: A Contribution To the Study of the Communist Theory of State and Revolution. A. W. Sijthoff—Leyden.
  • Lindsay, Michael (1976). New Constitution of Communist China: Comparative Analysis. Institute of International Relations.
  • Lu, Da (2021). Development of the Constitutions in China and the Visegrad States: A Comparative Perspective. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 9789811656361.
  • McCauley, Martin (1979). Marxism−Leninism in the German Democratic Republic: The Socialist Unity Party (SED). The Macmillan Press. ISBN 9780333258286.
  • Nilsson, Astrid Norén (2018). Cambodia's Second Kingdom: Nation, Imagination, and Democracy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501725944.
  • Ottaway, David; Ottaway, Marina (1981). Afrocommunism. Africana Publishing Company. ISBN 0841906645.
  • Prifti, Peter R. (1978). Socialist Albania since 1944: Domestic and Foreign Developments. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  • Puri, Shalini (2014). The Grenada Revolution in the Caribbean Present. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781349298549.
  • Radenkova, Petra (1978). Georgi Dimitrov: a Short Biography. Sofia Press.
  • Smele, Jonathan D. (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442252813.
  • Szajkowski, Bogdan (1982). The Establishment of Marxist Regimes. Butterworths. ISBN 0408108339.
  • Thomas, Charles Marion (1952). The Development of Communist Theory Under the U.S.S.R. Air University.
  • Toal, Gerard (2017). Near Abroad: Putin, the West and the Contest Over Ukraine and the Caucasus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190253301.
  • Vickery, Michael (1986). Kampuchea: Politics, Economics and Society. Frances Pinter Publishers. ISBN 0861874234.
  • Vine, Victor T. Le (2004). Politics in Francophone Africa. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1-58826-249-9.
  • Zürcher, Erik J. (2004). Turkey: A Modern History. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780857717566.

Book entries

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  • Chung, Chin-Wee (1986). "The Evolution of Political Institutions in North Korea". In Scalapino, Robert A.; Sato, Seizaburo; Wanandi, Jusuf (eds.). Asian Political Institutionalization. University of California Press. pp. 18–41.
  • Decalo, Samuel (1981). "People's Republic of Benin". In Szajkowski, Bogdan (ed.). Marxist Governments: A World Survey, Albania ― The Congo. Vol. 1. St. Martin's Press. pp. 87–115.
  • Holmes, Leslie (1981). "People's Republic of Bulgaria". In Szajkowski, Bogdan (ed.). Marxist Governments: A World Survey, Albania ― The Congo. Vol. 1. St. Martin's Press. pp. 116–144.
  • Limberg, Wayne P. (1990). "Soviet military support for third-world Marxist regimes". In Katz, Mark N. (ed.). The USSR and Marxist Revolutions in the Third World. Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–118. ISBN 9780521392655.
  • Sablin, Ivan; Zhamsoev, Amgalan (2025). "A "Live Laboratory" of Noncapitalist Development: Positioning Mongolia in the Informal Soviet Empire, 1919–1940". In Fletcher, Robert S. G.; Reichardt, Alec Zuercher (eds.). Inlands: Empires, Contested Interiors, and the Connection of the World. Vol. 1. Columbia University Press. pp. 287–313. ISBN 9780231211567.
  • Schwab, Peter (1981). "Socialist Ethiopia". In Szajkowski, Bogdan (ed.). Marxist Governments: A World Survey, Cuba ― Mongolia. Vol. 2. St. Martin's Press. pp. 293–320.
  • Radu, Michael S.; Somerville, Keith (1989). "The People's Republic of the Congo". In Szajkowski, Bogdan (ed.). Benin, the Congo, Burkina Faso: Politics, Economics and Society. Frances Pinter Publishers. pp. 145–236.

Journal entries

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