Manchurian nationalism
Manchurian nationalism or Manchu nationalism (simplified Chinese: 满洲民族主义; traditional Chinese: 滿族民族主義) refers to the ethnic nationalism of the Manchu people or the territorial nationalism of the inhabitants of Manchuria, regardless of ethnic origin.
Overview
[edit]While ruling China proper, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty had promoted a common, "Manchufying" identity among members of the Eight Banners, its primary military forces. Manchus were thus strongly associated with the Banner system, even though there were Mongol and Han Chinese Bannermen as well. The Banner identity was not yet racial or national, but still strongly divided the mostly Manchu Banner people from the primarily Han Chinese civilians of the Qing Empire. This divide grew with the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1912, and the foundation of the Republic of China.[1] Thereafter, ethnic identity grew greatly in importance, and the Banner people had to decide whether to identify as Manchu, Han Chinese, or Mongol. Many of Mongol or Han Chinese ethnic origin opted to be classified as Manchu, especially in northern China, and the descendants of the Bannermen were generally called Manzu ("Manchu ethnic group") from then on.[2]
As supporters of the old Qing dynasty, the Banner people (or Manchu-associated groups) were disempowered and discriminated against in the new Republic.[3] Many Qing nobles thus started to conspire against the new authorities, and the idea of a Manchu/Manchurian nationalism grew in importance due to this development. One of the first attempts to create a Manchu polity was by Shanqi, the Prince Su, who tried to create a separatist state in Inner Mongolia with Japanese help in 1912. His venture was not driven by nationalism, however, but by a desire to see the monarchy under Puyi restored.[4] In general, anti-Republican groups founded by Banner people, most prominently the Royalist Party, were initially more motivated by monarchism, conservatism, and revisionism than Manchu/Manchurian nationalism.[5] Manchurian nationalism and independence were heavily promoted by the Empire of Japan, however, whose aim was to weaken and divide China. The Japanese Kwantung Army was already attempting to use the Royalist Party and Zhang Zuolin (who claimed descent from Han Chinese Bannermen) as early as 1916 to promote Manchurian independence.[6] Following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Qing prince and Royalist Party associate Puwei travelled to Shenyang and called for the "Manchus to govern Manchuria" in cooperation with Japan. The Japanese did not accept his self-proclamation as leader of the Manchurian independence movement, however, and sidelined him after the foundation of Manchukuo.[7]
The major and opportunistic involvement of Japan in the movement for Manchurian independence has led historian David Egler to describe Manchurian nationalism as "artificial".[8] He argued that it was for the most part a propaganda tool to justify the Japanese intervention, occupation, and colonisation of Manchuria under the cornerstone of "minzoku kyowa" (racial harmony) between Manchu, Han Chinese, Japanese and others in the region.[9] With the foundation of Manchukuo, Manchurian nationalism became a territorial or inter-ethnic nationalism of all people living in Manchuria,[10] and was no longer limited to Manchu people.
Proclaimed Manchukuo government-in-exile
[edit]Manchukuo Government | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: National Anthem of Manchukuo | |
.png) Claimed territory of the "Manchukuo Government" | |
| Capital | Hong Kong, Taipei (provisional) Changchun, Harbin (proclaimed) |
| Official languages | Japanese Manchu Mandarin Mongolian Korean Russian |
| Religion | State Shinto |
| Demonym(s) | Manchurian |
| Government | Government-in-exile |
• Emperor | Kangde |
• Head of Regency Council | Arslan Sathak |
| Establishment | |
• Manchukuo Temporary Government formed | 2004 |
• Manchukuo Government formed | 2019 |
Website https://manchustate.org | |
The Manchukuo Government (known as the Manchukuo Temporary Government until 2019), commonly known as Manchuria, is an organization established in 2004 in Hong Kong.[11] On its website, it claims to be the government in exile of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state with limited recognition which controlled Manchuria from 1932 to 1945; it seeks to revive the state and to separate it from the People's Republic of China, which controls its claimed territory.[12] Journalists and internet users have expressed doubts about its authenticity and aims.[11] On its website, it claims to have merged with other Manchu independence organizations as of 2019.
Structure and symbols
[edit]Media summaries of its website state that the Manchukuo Government includes an emperor, a royal family, a prime minister, and a cabinet. It continues to use the old National Anthem of Manchukuo and Flag of Manchukuo.[11] The website has accounts of the history of the region and its people.
The Manchukuo Government is a member of the International Monarchist Conference.[13] It also seeks to join the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.[11] It claims to have overseas branches in Brazil, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States.[14]
The leadership of the Manchukuo Government is formed by electing an emperor and a prime minister. In the 2008 elections, the emperorship was won by "Aisin Gioro Xiaojie" (愛新覺羅‧孝傑), stated to be a student in the University of Hong Kong's history department; his actual relation to the Aisin Gioro clan is suspect, as his generation name "Xiao" (孝) does not fit with the actual clan genealogy.[11] However, that emperor dropped out of contact with the Manchukuo Government, so in April 2010, it held another election, won by "Aisin Gioro Chongji" (爱新觉罗‧崇基).[15] Jason Adam-Tonis was elected as prime minister in May 2010. At the time, Adam-Tonis was a New York University student and also a chairman of the Songun Politics Study Group, a North Korean front group based in the United States.[16] In April 2011, The Manchukuo Government have merge with the Imperial Qing Restoration Organization, The Manchukuo Government and the entire cabinet resign and Adam-Tonis handed over power and the royal seals to His Imperial Majesty 李志栓 as the next emperor, Adam-Tonis was appointed Prime Minister of the combined Organization. In 2015, Fu Jun led a few supporters that is against the merger to form a separate Manchukuo Government and according to its website, Dokuritsu Aisingyoro has ascended to the throne in 2015, who appointed a president named Cheung Siu Bong, who was president until it merged with other Manchu organizations, at which time Fu Jun became president. Since 2019, the long dead emperor Kangde is recognized as the current emperor, with a regency council running on his behalf.[17] The organization also questioned the legitimacy of the 2020 United States presidential election.[18]
Financial activities
[edit]The Manchukuo Government's "central bank", which claims to succeed the old Central Bank of Manchou, declared the old Manchukuo yuan to have a fixed exchange rate of 0.8 to the United States dollar, and offers currency exchange services by post.[19] As early as 2007, it was issuing identity cards for US$3 each, and fantasy passports for US$8 each, with payment to be made by PayPal.[19] Its website claimed to sell Manchukuo postage stamps, but when a Ming Pao columnist enquired with them about the possibility of purchasing them, a spokesperson stated that the items were sold out.[15] It also issued what it referred to as "loyalty bonds". Its activities led the Hong Kong Securities and Futures Commission, Greece's Hellenic Capital Market Commission, and Spain's Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores to issue public warnings about it in February 2008 to emphasise that it is not a body permitted to offer investment services.[20][21]
Reactions
[edit]The Manchukuo Government received occasional media attention in the context of the politics of Taiwan around the time of the 2009 elections, as its members may be distant relatives of Kuomintang general-secretary and ethnic Manchu King Pu-tsung, and it was jokingly suggested that King himself might be one of its secret agents.[11][22] Some internet users suspected the entire website of being a scam set up for the purpose of raising money.[11] Hong Kong political scientist Simon Shen, an expert on Chinese nationalism and the internet, also expressed suspicion of the website and its attempt to portray the revival of Manchukuo as a movement undertaken on behalf of Manchu people; he pointed out that the people who ever felt genuine identification with the state of Manchukuo were mostly not Chinese or Manchu but rather Japanese.[15] Another news commentator similarly suggested that Japanese nationalists were behind the site.[12] On the other hand, Shen also suggested that the whole website might simply be a spoof designed by internet trolls.[23] James Leipold of the China Policy Institute described it as "thick on anti-communist vitriol" while failing to address Japanese hegemony in Manchukuo.[24]
The Manchukuo Government also provoked angry reactions from some quarters. A NOWnews guest columnist in May 2011, in the midst of other arguments against Taiwan independence, called the Manchukuo Government "the shame of the people of Northeast China".[14] Its stated political positions, such as support for the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan independence movement, as well as its calls to disrupt the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, earned it the ire of internet users in mainland China.[11] At one point, rumours were spreading in mainland Chinese internet forums that one "Toshiaki Kawashima" (川島志明), whom they alleged to be the nephew of Yoshiko Kawashima and prime minister of the Manchukuo Government, was working as a secret agent for Chen Shui-bian in Papua New Guinea with the aim of fomenting violence against Chinese people there.[25]
See also
[edit]- Concordia Association
- Local ethnic nationalism
- Northeast China
- Royalist Party
- Tartary
- Lytton Report
- Adverse possession
References
[edit]- ^ Rhoads (2000), p. 278.
- ^ Rhoads (2000), pp. 278–279.
- ^ Rhoads (2000), pp. 279, 283.
- ^ Rhoads (2000), p. 235.
- ^ Rhoads (2000), pp. 235–236.
- ^ Dickinson (1999), pp. 136, 301–302 (note 92).
- ^ Rhoads (2000), pp. 271–272.
- ^ Egler 1977, p. 107.
- ^ Egler 1977, pp. 90–107.
- ^ Egler 1977, pp. 96–97.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "滿洲國復辟？ 金溥聰有個族人自封是皇帝 [Manchukuo restored? King Pu-tsung has a clansman who proclaimed himself emperor]", NOWNews, 2009-12-10, archived from the original on 2012-03-25, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ a b 孫亨利 [Henry Sun] (2009-09-16), "滿洲國要復活了！ [Manchukuo revived!]", NOWNews, archived from the original on 2012-03-25, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ "愛新覺羅的國仇家恨！" [Aisin Gioro's national enmity and personal hatred!], South News, 2009-12-15, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ a b 阿修伯 (2011-05-25), "聲討賤性台獨、賤性滿獨" [Denounce Taiwanese independence and Manchukuo independence], NOWNews, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ a b c 沈旭暉 [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-09), "從互聯網「滿洲國皇帝全民直選」談起" [Regarding the internet "Manchukuo Emperor election"], Ming Pao, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ "White Power and apocalyptic cults: Pro-DPRK Americans revealed; American homegrown terrorist groups are the chosen favorites of Pyongyang". NKNews. 6 May 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ "滿洲帝國流亡政府之要人". manchuriagov.net. Retrieved 2024-09-05.
- ^ 満洲国政府/滿洲國政府 (2021-01-20), "Manchukuo Statement about Biden Regime", @Manchukuo_Gov, retrieved 2021-11-30
- ^ a b "騎呢滿洲國護照 8美元一本 [Funny Manchukuo passports, US$8 each]", Apple Daily, 2007-07-03, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ Εταιρειεσ μη εχουσεσ αδεια παροχησ επενδυτικων υπηρεσιων βασει σχετικων προειδοποιησεων (public warnings) ξενων εποπτικων αρχων (PDF), Hellenic Capital Market Commission, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-02, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ "CNMV advierte tres compañías Hong Kong podrían dar servicios sin autorización", Estrategias de Inversión, 2008-03-06, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ "金溥聰是超極震撼彈 [King Pu-tsung's a real shocker]", NOWNews, 2009-12-17, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ 沈旭暉 [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-16), "「太平洋滿洲獨立基地」——網絡稻草人的故事 ['Pacific Manchuria Independence Base' an internet scarecrow story]", Ming Pao, retrieved 2011-09-26
- ^ Leipold, James (19 May 2016). "Ethnicity and the Chinese Internet: Escape from Reality?". China Policy Institute Analysis. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ 沈旭暉 [Shen Xuhui] (2010-05-14), "「滿洲國」參與巴布亞新畿內亞排華? ["Manchukuo" joined anti-Chinese activities in Papua New Guinea?]", Ming Pao, archived from the original on 2012-04-04, retrieved 2011-09-26
Bibliography
[edit]- Dickinson, Frederick R. (1999). War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914-1919. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674005075.
- Egler, David George (1977). Japanese mass organizations in Manchuria, 1928-1945: the ideology of racial harmony (PDF). Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona.
- Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. Seattle, London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295997483.