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Mongolian Revolution of 1990

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Mongolian Revolution of 1990
Part of the revolutions of 1989
Hunger strikers near the Government Palace in Ulaanbaatar, 1990
Date10 December 1989 – 9 March 1990
(2 months, 3 weeks and 6 days)
Location
Mongolia
Caused by
Goals
Methods
Resulted in
Parties
Lead figures

The Mongolian Revolution of 1990, known in Mongolia as the 1990 Democratic Revolution,[a] was a peaceful democratic revolution that led to the country's transition to a multi-party system.[5] It was inspired by the economic reforms of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and was one of the many revolutions of 1989. It was led mostly by young demonstrators who rallied at Sükhbaatar Square, in the capital city, Ulaanbaatar. One of the most critical groups that pushed for change was the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU).[6] The main organisers of the demonstrations included Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, Erdeniin Bat-Üül, Davaadorjiin Ganbold, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, and Bat-Erdeniin Batbayar. The revolution came to an end on 9 March 1990, when the entirety of the politburo of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) headed by Jambyn Batmönkh resigned.

Although one-party rule in Mongolia officially ended with the adoption of a new constitution on 12 February 1992, the MPRP remained in power for nearly half a decade until it was voted out in favour of the opposition Democratic Union Coalition in the 1996 parliamentary election. However, the country had already begun transitioning to a market economy by 1991, with the creation of the stock market and the Government Privatization Committee.[7] Some sources state that the economy was transitioning to a free market economy.[8][9]

Background

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Mongolia was previously a vassal state to the Qing dynasty. Starting with the pro-independence movements in 1911 against the colonisation policy of the late Qing dynasty, the country claimed its independence in 1921 with the help of the Soviet Union, after White Russian and Chinese forces had been expelled. However, the country was highly influenced by the Soviet Union, and would eventually become a one-party, socialist state by 1924. The Mongolian People's Party that played a crucial role in achieving independence from the Qing Dynasty would be renamed to the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) due to pressure from the Soviet Union.[10]

One-party state

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Over the following decades, Mongolia would become highly aligned with the Soviet Union and considered its "satellite state", which was preferable to the alternative of China, both before and after 1949.[11][12] Various extreme measures were taken to establish the Mongolian communist state including the persecution and purges of democratic leaders, lamas, and intellectuals.[13] The massive transformations in the country included a complete ban of religious practices and the destruction of 700 monasteries, but also the construction of Mongolia's largest cities, the establishment of major industries, and the education of the masses.[14][15] The Mongolian People's Republic was led by Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan from 1939 to 1952, followed by Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal who served as the leader of the state from 1952 to 1984, both of whom were regarded to be highly agreeable with the Soviet Union's increasing involvement in Mongolia.[16][17]

1980s reforms

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After the resignation of Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal in 1984, inspired by Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms in the Soviet Union, the new leadership under Jambyn Batmönkh implemented economic reforms but failed to appeal to those who, in late 1989, wanted broader political and societal changes.[18] Concepts such as glasnost, freedom of speech, and economic liberties that the intellectuals were exposed to abroad inspired the initial discussions that would lead to the revolution.[19][20]

Beginning in December 1988, the ruling party's newsletter, Ünen (lit."Truth"), began publishing a new column called "Workers' Letters," which criticized the Politburo and party leaders for the first time.[21] Also in December 1988, a youth underground organization called "New Generation" (Шинэ үе) was established by young dissidents: Erdeniin Bat-Üül, the son of well-known author Sengiin Erdene; Sosorbaramyn Tsogtsaikhan, lead singer of Honh (Хонх, lit.'Bell') band; and Sukhbaataryn Amarsanaa, a journalist.[21][22]

Chronology

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December 1989

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The first public demonstrations in Sükhbaatar Square in 1989

The first public demonstrations took place on 6 December 1989 in Erdenet, the second-largest city of the MPR.[21] During the demonstration, protestors submitted demands for the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Erdenet, the full nationalization of Erdenet Mining Corporation (jointly owned by the governments of the MPR and the USSR), and the resignation of the Politburo of the MPRP's Central Committee to local party structures.[23]

The next day, on 7 December, similar demonstrations by teachers and students took place in Ard Ayush square at Khovd, the provincial capital of Khovd Province. The demonstrators handed over demands for the resignation of the Politburo and the government to the local governing body, which were to be delivered to Ulaanbaatar, the capital.[23]

On the morning of 10 December 1989, on International Human Rights Day, the first open pro-democracy public demonstration occurred in front of the Youth Cultural Center in Ulaanbaatar, where the creation of the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) was announced with Sanjaasürengiin Zorig as general organizer.[24][25] During the demonstration, around 300 protestors submitted 13-point demands to the government.[21][23] The demands included a multi-party system, free elections with universal suffrage, the replacement of a centrally planned economy with a market economy, private property, re-organization of the government, and protection of human rights, particularly freedom of religion.[26] The protesters injected a nationalist element into the protests by using traditional Mongolian script—which most Mongolians could not read—as a symbolic repudiation of the political system that had imposed the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet.

Many now-prominent figures, such as Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj , along with Dari-Sukhbaatar and Chimediin Enkhee, were members of the MDU and would eventually come to be known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolia's Democratic Revolution, commonly referred to as the First Thirteen.[27][28][29] MDU members and anyone associated with the movement had to be secretive to ensure their security. Members that were known to be associated with the organisation were laid off on the basis of "engaging in conduct inconsistent with communist and socialist ideology".[27]

Demonstrations drastically increased by late December when the news of Garry Kasparov's interview with Playboy broke. The interview suggested that the Soviet Union might sell Mongolia to China in order to raise money.[18][30]

January 1990

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On 2 January 1990, the MDU began distributing leaflets calling for a democratic revolution.[31]

Flag of the Mongolian People's Republic (1945–1992)
Modified flag of Mongolia used by protestors; later adopted as official flag in 1992

On 14 January 1990, the protesters, having grown from 300 to a few thousand, gathered in the square in front of the Lenin Museum.

A demonstration on Sükhbaatar Square on 21 January (in weather of −30°C) followed. Protesters carried banners alluding to Chinggis Khaan, rehabilitating a figure which the socialist school curriculums had outright banned.[32] They also celebrated Daramyn Tömör-Ochir, a politician who was purged from the MPRP in 1962 as part of the MPRP's efforts to suppress the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of Chinggis Khaan's birth. The protestors carried a modified Flag of Mongolia, which distinctly lacked the star representing the country's socialist beliefs; this flag would eventually become the official flag after the revolution.[18] MDU organizer and leader Zorig called for the removal of a constitutional clause that allowed the MPRP to rule over Mongolia.[23]

February 1990

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In subsequent months, activists continued to organise demonstrations, rallies, protests, and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes.[33] Activists had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside, and the MDU's activities led to other calls for democracy all over the country.[34][35][36] The demonstrations expanded to thousands in the capital city, Ulaanbaatar, and to other major cities, such as Erdenet and Darkhan, as well as to provincial centers like Mörön.

On 18 February 1990, the MDU convened its first Congress with 611 representatives and 200 guests from 16 provinces and 3 cities. During the congress, the MDU announced the establishment of the Mongolian Democratic Party, Mongolia's first opposition party, and the first independent print press, Shine Toli (Шинэ толь), was issued the same day. Around 30 foreign journalists came to report on the events.[23] Large-scale demonstrations were followed by the creation of the first opposition parties of Mongolia.

March 1990

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Sanjaasürengiin Zorig calming down the crowd in Sükhbaatar Square, March 1990

After numerous demonstrations of thousands in both the capital city and provincial centers, on 4 March 1990, the MDU and three other reform organisations held a joint outdoor mass meeting, inviting the government to attend. The government sent no representative to what became a demonstration of over 100,000 people demanding democratic change.[31]

On 7 March 1990, in Sükhbaatar Square, the MDU initially started a hunger strike of ten, urging the current government to resign. The hunger strike escalated as thousands gathered to join the strike, declaring that the strike would not end until the resignation of the current government.[37]

Chairman of the MPRP and Chairman of the People's Great Khural Jambyn Batmönkh

The situation was tense. Behind the scenes within the Politburo, there were serious discussions about cracking down on the protestors. Eventually, a decree was written, awaiting approval from the Chairman of the MPRP, Jambyn Batmönkh, that would effectively repress the protests. Batmönkh outwardly opposed the decree, maintaining that they must "under no circumstances resort to using violence" (Mongolian: Хэрхэвч Хүч хэрэглэж болохгүй). Those who were present there later recalled that Batmönkh said, "I will never sign this. We few Mongols have not yet come to the point that we will make each other's noses bleed," smacked the table, and left the room."[38] On 9 March[39] or 15 March 1990,[40] the Politburo was replaced, and on 21 March 1990, Batmönkh announced his resignation.[39]

Elbegdorj announced the news of the Politburo resignation to the hunger strikers and to people who had gathered on Sükhbaatar Square at 10:00 pm.[27][when?] The hunger strike stopped. The MPRP Politburo's resignation paved the way for the first multi-party elections in Mongolia.[33] The new government announced Mongolia's first free parliamentary elections, which were to be held in July.

Aftermath

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A statue of pro-democracy leader Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, who was murdered by two assassins in 1998

Following the Politburo's resignation, Mongolia's first free, multi-party elections for a bicameral parliament were held on 29 June 1990.[31][41] In the 1990 parliamentary elections, parties ran for 430 seats in the People's Great Khural. Opposition parties were not able to nominate enough candidates. The opposition Mongolian Democratic Party nominated 346 candidates for the 430 seats in the People's Great Khural (upper house). The ruling MPRP won 357 seats in the People's Great Khural and 31 out of 50 seats in the newly established State Little Khural as well.[42] Compared to the opposition parties, the MPRP enjoyed a strong position in the countryside.

The People's Great Khural (upper house) first met on 3 September 1990 and elected incumbent head of state Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat (MPRP) as president on 3 September, Radnaasümbereliin Gonchigdorj (MSDP) as vice-president on 13 September, Dashiin Byambasüren as prime minister (MPRP) on 11 September, and 50 members to the State Little Khural (lower house) according to proportional representation. The vice-president was also chairman of the Little Khural.

The new MPRP government under Dashiin Byambasüren shared power with the opposition parties, and implemented constitutional and economic reforms. As these reforms coincided with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had until 1990 provided significant economic aid to Mongolia's state budget, the country experienced harsh economic downturn which caused enterprises to close down, inflation to rise, and basic food to be rationed for a time. Foreign trade broke down, economic and technical aid from the former socialist countries ended, and domestic economy was struggling with privatisation. A thriving black market arose in Ulaanbaatar by 1988 to accommodate the needs of the populace.[31]

Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, the first president of Mongolia, ratifying the 1992 Constitution on 13 January 1992

In November 1991, the People's Great Khural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force on 12 February 1992. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural.

The first election major win for the Democratic opposition was the presidential election of 1993, when the nominee of the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP) and the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), incumbent Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat,[b] won by 59.89% of the total vote. The Democratic Union Coalition, co-led by MNDP chairman Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, for the first time succeeded in winning parliamentary majority in the 1996 parliamentary elections.[43]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Mongolian: 1990 оны ардчилсан хувьсгал, romanized: 1990 ony ardchilsan khuvisgal
  2. ^ Ochirbat was originally a MPRP member, but when his party nominated an orthodox communist as their presidential candidate, he agreed to run as the opposition candidate of the Mongolian National Democratic Party and Mongolian Social Democratic Party.

References

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  1. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46465311_Privatization_in_Mongolia
  2. ^ "Mongolian Privatization Process in Transition Economy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2021.
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  5. ^ 350.org; Hunter, Daniel (17 April 2024). "Authoritarianism to Democracy: The Story of Mongolia". The Commons Social Change Library. Archived from the original on 30 August 2025. Retrieved 5 February 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  8. ^ https://higheredstrategy.com/from-soviet-influence-to-market-economy-mongolias-higher-education-journey/
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  27. ^ a b c Tsakhia, Elbegdorj (1999). Үнэний цагаан мөр [The white line of truth]. Ulaanbaatar: Hiimori. p. 15. ISBN 99929-74-01-X.
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  30. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (January 1990). "With Official Permission, Change Stirs Mongolia". The New York Times: 6. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
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  32. ^ Fineman, Mark (24 January 1990). "Mongolia Reform Group Marches to Rock Anthem". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2012. Mongolia-watchers in Beijing said that ... the democracy movement is rooted more in nationalism than in dissent .... 'Watching it unfold, you get the feeling this is more a pro-nationalist and pro-Mongolian movement than it is anti-party or anti-government,' said a diplomat who left Ulan Bator on Monday.
  33. ^ a b Ahmed and Norton, Nizam U. and Philip (1999). Parliaments in Asia. London: Frank Cass & Co.Ltd. p. 143. ISBN 0-7146-4951-1. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  34. ^ Baabar (16 November 2009). "Democratic Revolution and Its Terrible Explanations". baabar.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  35. ^ "Democracy's Hero: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj". Washington: The International Republican Institute. 21 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  36. ^ "Mongolia Celebrates 20th Anniversary of Democratic Revolution". The International Republican Institute. 11 December 2009. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
  37. ^ Wilhelm, Kathy (12 March 1990). "Mongolian Politburo resigns en masse". The Free Lance Star. Fredericksburg, VA. p. 4. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  38. ^ B. and R., Enkhtuul and Oyun. "Batmönkh's widow A. Daariimaa:If my husband was working as a professor, he would have been alive today". Zuunii Medee (Century News). Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
  39. ^ a b Ch., Munkhbayar (13 March 2013). "What was the Mongolian democratic revolution?". dorgio.mn (in Mongolian). Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
  40. ^ Nicholas Kristof (15 March 1990). "Mongolia Ousts Leaders and Ends Communists' Monopoly on Power". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Wikidata Q130214559.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  41. ^ Holley, David (24 July 1990). "Briefing Paper : For the First Time, Mongolians Have Political Choices". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, CA. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  42. ^ Peter Staisch, Werner M. Prohl, Dschingis Khan lächelt, Bonn 1998, p.38ff
  43. ^ Lawrence, Susan V. (14 June 2011). "Mongolia: Issues for Congress" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
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