Kererū

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"Kereru" redirects here. For the planet, see Kererū (planet). For "Kereru Homestead and Station" in the Hawkes Bay region, see Maraekakaho.

Kererū
Kereru perched on kowhai at Otari Native Botanic Garden.jpg
In Otari-Wilton's Bush, Wellington
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Hemiphaga
Species:
H. novaeseelandiae
Binomial name
Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae
(Gmelin, 1789)
Synonyms

Columba novaeseelandiae Gmelin
Carpophaga novaeseelandiae (Gmelin)

The kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) or New Zealand pigeon is a species of pigeon native to the New Zealand mainland. Described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789, it is a large, conspicuous pigeon with a white breast and green-blue plumage, which is found in a variety of habitats across New Zealand. The kererū feeds mainly on fruits, although it also consumes leaves, buds and flowers. It is the only remaining New Zealand bird capable of swallowing large fruit, making it an important seed disperser for native trees.

Although widespread in both forest and urban habitats, its numbers have declined significantly since European colonisation and the arrival of invasive mammals such as rats, stoats and possums. However, the results of nationwide bird surveys indicate that there has been a significant recovery in the population of kererū in suburban areas. Despite this, as of 2021 the IUCN Red List classifies the species as "Near Threatened", while the Department of Conservation classifies kererū as "Not Threatened" but conservation dependent. Two subspecies have been recognised, although the second—the Norfolk pigeon of Norfolk Island—became extinct in the early 20th century.

Considered a taonga to the Māori people, the kererū was historically a major food source in Māori culture. However, due to the previous decline in its population, hunting it is illegal. Customary use of kererū is restricted to the use of feathers and bones obtained from dead birds collected by the Department of Conservation. This issue has received significant public and political attention, as some people argue that bans on kererū hunting are detrimental to Māori traditions. In 2018 the kererū was designated Bird of the Year by the New Zealand Forest & Bird organisation, and in 2019, the exoplanet HD 137388 b was renamed "Kererū" in its honour.

Taxonomy[edit]

The extinct Norfolk pigeon (H. n. spadicea)

English ornithologist John Latham wrote about the kererū in his A General Synopsis of Birds in 1783 but did not give it a scientific name.[2] German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin gave it its first formal description in 1789 as Columba novaeseelandiae,[3] with Latham naming it Columba zealandica in his 1790 Index Ornithologicus.[4] The genus Hemiphaga was introduced by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854 with the kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) as the type species for that genus.[5] The name combines the Ancient Greek hēmi meaning "half-" or "small" with the end of the genus name Carpophaga introduced by English naturalist Prideaux John Selby in 1835.[6]

Two subspecies are recognised: H. n. novaseelandiae, which is found in mainland New Zealand, and the Norfolk pigeon (H. n. spadicea) of Norfolk Island, now extinct. The subspecies differed in their plumage colour and shape.[7] In 2001, it was proposed that a third subspecies—H. n. chathamensis or the Chatham pigeon—should be raised to full species status as H. chathamensis on the basis of its distinct plumage, larger size and differing bone structure.[8] This has since been widely accepted.[9][10] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA confirmed the kererū and Norfolk pigeons to be more closely related to each other than the Chatham pigeon, and that dispersal between the three landmasses most likely occurred during the Pleistocene epoch.[11]

The kererū belongs to the family Columbidae, and the subfamily Ptilinopinae, which is found throughout Southeast Asia, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. The members of this subfamily feed largely on fruits, mainly stone fruit.[12] Within the subfamily, the kererū and Chatham pigeon are in a clade with a lineage that has given rise to the topknot pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticus) of Australia and the mountain pigeons (Gymnophaps) of New Guinea.[13]

"New Zealand pigeon" has been designated the official common name of the kererū by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[14] "Kererū" (which is both singular and plural) is the most common Māori name,[15] and a variety of mainstream sources now use the name kererū for the species.[16][17][18][19][20][21] Spelling Māori loanwords with macrons—that indicate a long vowel—is now common in New Zealand English.[22][23] It is also known as kūkupa and kūkū in some parts of the North Island, particularly in Northland,[15] and Latham had reported the name "Hagarrèroo" in 1783.[2] Kererū have also been called "wood pigeons",[24] but this is misleading because they are not closely related to the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) of the Northern Hemisphere, which is a member of a different genus.

Description[edit]

Closeup of head showing iridescent feathers

The kererū is a large arboreal pigeon weighing 550–850 grams (19–30 oz),[25] and can be up to 51 centimetres (20 in) in length.[15] Its appearance is that of a typical pigeon, in that it has a relatively small head, a straight soft-based bill and loosely attached feathers.[12] The breast is typically white, its plumage is an iridescent blue-green, and the bill is red with an orange tip.[26] The feet and eyes are red. Juveniles have a similar colouration but are generally paler with dull colours for the beak, eyes and feet and a shorter tail.[26]

Kererū make occasional soft coo sounds (hence the onomatopoeic names), and their wings make a very distinctive "whooshing" sound as they fly.[27] The bird's flight is also distinctive; birds will often ascend slowly before making steep parabolic dives.[26]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Found throughout New Zealand from Northland to Stewart Island/Rakiura and offshore islands,[28] the kererū was historically abundant throughout the country.[17] Its lack of genetic diversity suggests the species retreated to forest refugia during periods of Quaternary glaciation and rapidly spread across the country again when the climate grew warmer.[11] Kererū remains have been recovered from Raoul Island in the Kermadecs, confirming the species once inhabited the island, though it was made locally extinct through hunting and cat predation in the late 1800s.[29] They can be found in a variety of habitats including in native lowland forest, scrub, the countryside, and city gardens and parks.[30]

The kererū can be found in habitats ranging in altitude from coastal to montane.[31] However, their numbers declined significantly after European colonisation.[17] This was due mainly to a decrease in habitat, introduced predators and hunting.[17] Currently, whether kererū are present at a particular location within New Zealand is dependent on numerous factors such as forest cover, forest type and density of predators.[17]

Behaviour[edit]

The kererū displays typical pigeon behaviour, including drinking by suction (unlike many birds which drink by raising their heads, using the assistance of gravity),[32] a diving display flight, and ritualised 'billing' during courtship. Kererū also feed crop milk to hatchlings.[12][7]

Diet[edit]

A New Zealand pigeon stands on the fruiting spike of a cabbage tree
Kererū were once the major dispersers of the seeds of cabbage trees. They eat the small white seeds in autumn and winter.

The kererū is primarily frugivorous, preferring fruit from native trees, but also eating leaves, flowers and buds.[28][33] It is the only bird capable of eating the largest native fruits and drupes (those with smallest diameter greater than 1 cm), and spreading the seeds intact.[34] The kererū is the primary seed disperser for six New Zealand native plants with large seeds: tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), puriri (Vitex lucens), taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi), tawapou (Pouteria costata) and Elingamita johnsonii.[34] Because of its diverse diet and widespread distribution, the kererū plays an important ecological role, and is vital to the health of podocarp-broadleaf forest.[35][36] After eating, kererū often sun themselves while digesting their food. This behaviour can lead to the fruit fermenting in the bird's crop, particularly during warm summer weather, and can cause the bird to become intoxicated.[24]

While fruit comprises the major part of its diet, the kererū also browses on leaves and buds from a wide variety of both native and exotic species, especially nitrogen-rich foliage during breeding.[19] Its diet changes seasonally as the availability of fruit changes, and leaves can comprise most of its diet at certain times of the year.[37] Preferred leaves include kōwhai, tree lucerne, willow, elm, and poplar.[28]

Breeding[edit]

Kererū courtship display (24 s)
A kererū chick in the nest

Breeding generally depends on the availability of ripe fruit, which varies seasonally, annually, and by location. Like other frugivorous pigeons, the kererū feeds on many species with tropical affinities, including the Lauraceae and Arecaceae,[38][39][40][41] which abound in the essentially subtropical forests of northern New Zealand. They also feed on podocarp species such as miro and kahikatea, which are thought to have existed since the time of the supercontinent Gondwana.[39][40][41][42] In the warmer northern half of the North Island, the kererū can nest all year round, except when moulting between March and May, provided enough fruit is available.[36] Further south fewer subtropical tree species grow, and in these areas breeding usually occurs between October (early spring) and April (late summer/early autumn), again depending on fruit availability.

In the breeding season, the male kererū performs display flights, where it ascends steeply and appears to stall at the top of the flight, before a steep swooping descent. Courtship display includes the male turning around on a perch adjacent to a female, placing the tip of the bill into a wing, and stretching out his neck while bowing his head. He then bounces up and down with his bill resting on his chest, and proceeds to mate with her if she is receptive.[43][44]

The kererū nests in trees, laying a single egg, in a flimsy, shallow nest constructed with twigs. The egg is incubated for 28–29 days, with the male and female taking turns to incubate in shifts of around six hours.[27] After hatching, the young bird takes another 30–45 days to fledge.[45] In seasons of plentiful fruit the kererū can successfully nest up to four times.[36]

Conservation[edit]

Traffic sign in New Zealand cautioning drivers of nearby kererū

Kererū were numerous until the 1960s, but they have since come under threat from introduced mammalian species, hunting, habitat degradation, and poor reproductive success.[46][45][47][48] The introduced Australian common brushtail possum and introduced species of rats—mainly the black rat, but also the Polynesian rat and brown rat—have played a role in reducing the population of kererū. Both possums and rats significantly reduce the amount of fruit available for kererū, and they also prey on kererū eggs and nestlings.[36][49][50]

The first legal restrictions on kererū harvests were created by the Wild Birds Protection Act 1864, which established hunting seasons for the species.[51] With kererū populations declining across the country, harvests became increasingly restricted by the Government.[52] This culminated in the Animals Protection and Game Act 1921–1922, which designated the kererū as an absolutely protected species, although the enforcement against hunting was not consistent.[12][53] This act was repealed and replaced by the Wildlife Act 1953, which reaffirmed the status of kererū as a protected species and outlawed any taking of the birds. Prosecutions have been taken enforcing this law.[53] Māori have protested at each of these law changes, claiming a traditional right to hunt the pigeon.[51]

Kererū are also vulnerable to injury or death as a result of collisions with vehicles. A large number of kererū fatalities have been reported alongside State Highway 2 in Wellington, as a result of low-flying birds being struck by vehicles as they fly across the motorway to feed on the flowers of tree lucerne.[54] Kererū can also be injured or killed following collisions with the windows of buildings.[55] In 2021, the Urban Wildlife Trust commenced a campaign to help protect kererū and other birds from colliding with the large glazed areas surrounding the upper terminal building of the Wellington Cable Car, adjacent to Wellington Botanic Gardens. The proposed solution was the installation of a grid of dots permanently fixed to approximately 150 square metres of glass.[56]

As of 2021 the kererū has been classified under the IUCN Red List as "near threatened", but the listing reports an increasing population trend.[57] The Department of Conservation classifies the kererū under the New Zealand threat classification system as "not threatened" with an increasing population but views the species as conservation dependent.[58] However it has been argued that several of the factors that caused the historic decrease in population are still present and could continue to damage the population.[17]

The Great Kererū Count[edit]

Advertising for The Great Kererū Count 2021

A survey of kererū population has been undertaken for 10 consecutive days every year since 2013, using observations from members of the public. The Great Kererū Count is claimed to be New Zealand's largest citizen science project. It is led by the conservation organisations Kererū Discovery and Urban Wildlife Trust, in conjunction with city councils in Wellington, Dunedin and Nelson, and Victoria University of Wellington.[59][60] The findings from the annual count, together with the results of a separate citizen science project—the annual New Zealand Garden Bird Survey—indicate that there has been a recovery in the population of kererū in suburban areas, with a 55% increase in reported sightings between 2015 and 2020.[61]

Relationship with humans[edit]

Illustration of New Zealand pigeon: A History of the Birds of New Zealand, Buller,1888
New Zealand pigeon: A History of the Birds of New Zealand, Buller, 1888

In Māori culture[edit]

Traditionally used for both its meat and feathers, the kererū is considered taonga to Māori; as such, for various iwi such as Ngāi Tūhoe, it forms a significant part of their cultural identity.[62] Kererū were the food of choice associated with Puanga celebrations as the birds are fat from eating berries that ripen during this time.[63] They also tended to be easier to catch at this time of year, as the berries they prefer to eat ferment in the bird's crop, causing them to become drunk.[63] Kererū feathers continue to be retained for making korowai (cloaks), while the tail feathers were used to decorate the tahā huahua (food storage containers).[62][46][64]

Snaring was the most common method of capturing kererū; less commonly, birds were speared.[46] One type of snaring used waka kererū, a trap where snares were placed on the sides of a water trough suspended in a tree.[46][64] As the kererū landed to drink from the trough, they would become caught by the snare. Occasionally, tame kererū were used as decoys to entice others.[65] Once caught, kererū were typically preserved in their own fat within tahā huahua (food storage containers).[46][64]

The kererū also plays a part in Māori mythology and lore, and has associations with the hero and trickster Māui.[66] In one such tradition, Māui took the form of a kererū when he went down into the underworld in search of his parents. In Māori mythology, the reason for the kererū's iridescent green-blue and white plumage is because when Māui transformed into the kererū, he was carrying the skirt/apron and belt of his mother, Tāranga.[46] The apron, Te Taro o Tāranga, is represented by the white breast feathers; the belt, Te Tātua a Tāranga, is signified by the green-blue feathers on the neck of the kererū.[67]

In archaeological sites[edit]

Kererū remains have been found in both inland and coastal sites throughout New Zealand.[68] Identification of bone specimens in archaeological sites has been difficult due to their being fragmented during preparation for food,[69] or because fine-mesh sieving was not carried out during excavations to retrieve bone samples.[70] A genetic analysis of bones from paleontological and archaeological sites, to determine the extent of fauna and the human impact on them, identified kererū bones at seven archaeological sites.[69][71][72] These sites give insight into the interactions between humans and kererū, including the effect of Māori hunting on historic kererū populations.[69][72] As well as being found on the main islands of New Zealand, kererū bones have also been recovered from sites excavated at Harataonga Bay on Great Barrier Island.[70] In the South Island, excavations in 2018 at the Raincliff rock art shelter in South Canterbury, revealed kererū bones along with moa, extinct New Zealand quail and rat bones.[73] Kererū bones, along with bones of other forest birds kaka, kakapo and red-crowned parakeets, were also found in rock shelter sites on Lee Island, Lake Te Anau in Southland.[74]

Current harvesting[edit]

From the 1990s, the issue of whether to re-establish the customary harvest of kererū has received significant public and political attention.[18] In 1994, the New Zealand Conservation Authority published a discussion paper about allowing the harvest of various species protected under the Wildlife Act 1953, including the kererū.[75] It has been argued that preventing the customary harvests of taonga such as kererū is in-part degrading or facilitating the loss of mātauranga (traditional knowledge) among Māori.[62] Furthermore, some argue that because the Treaty of Waitangi guarantees tangata whenua possession of taonga such as kererū, it therefore guarantees their right to harvest those taonga.[76] Currently, customary use of kererū is restricted to the use of feathers and bones obtained from dead birds collected by the Department of Conservation.[77]

Recognition[edit]

In 2018, the kererū was the winner of the annual Bird of the Year competition run by the New Zealand Forest & Bird organisation.[78][79] In 2019 the exoplanet originally named HD 137388 b was renamed in honour of the kererū.[80]

Photo gallery[edit]

  • Kererū
  • J2A7159.jpg
  • Kereru001.jpg
  • New Zealand Kereru in the Sunlight.jpg
  • Kereru perched on thin branch.jpg
  • New Zealand Pigeon Southstar 01.jpg

References[edit]

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External links[edit]

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