Pescetarianism

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Vegetarian-Pattern Diets
Pescetarianism
Sushi Kanagawa Japan (2013).JPGShrimp cocktail lemons lettuce seafood.jpg
Vegetarianfriendlysalad.jpgPizza Hot Sardines 02.jpg
Clockwise from top-left:
Japanese sushi is often a pescetarian-friendly cuisine; shrimp cocktail, a popular seafood dish in the Americas; a green salad, a worldwide vegetarian-friendly and pescetarian-friendly dish; pizza with sardine toppings substituting pepperoni.
Description
A pescetarian diet is a plant-based diet where meat consumption must be abstained from. Distinct from vegetarianism in that fish is included, often as a staple food.
Related Dietary Choices
Associated and Similar diets
[classification table]

Pescetarianism (/ˌpɛskəˈtɛəriənɪzəm/), also spelled pescatarianism,[2] is the practice of adhering to a diet that incorporates seafood while abstaining from the consumption of food made from any other animal.[3] Some people who adhere to pescetarian diets may not see fish as meat, and accordingly self-identify as vegetarians. Similarly, pescetarianism has sometimes been classified as a "vegetarian dietary pattern" by nutrition researchers.[4][5][6]

Most pescetarians are ovo-lacto vegetarians who add seafood to a diet which includes dairy and eggs, often described as "fish but no other meat". Some pescetarians may be more strict, following an otherwise vegan diet which excludes dairy, eggs or any animal products (such as rennet and gelatin)[7] other than seafood;[8][7] this is increasingly being referred to as "seaganism".[9] People following this diet pattern also wouldn't have to worry about avoiding isinglass, unlike vegans and some vegetarians who find it to be inappropriate for their diets. The common use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led groups such as the Vegetarian Society to clarify that diets containing seafood are not vegetarian.[10]

Etymology[edit]

"Pescetarian" is a neologism formed as a portmanteau of the Italian word pesce ("fish") and the English word "vegetarian".[11][12][13][14][15][16][17] The English pronunciation of both "pescetarian" and its variant pescatarian is /ˌpɛskəˈtɛəriən/, with the same /sk/ sound present in pescato (Italian: [peˈskaːto],[18][19] derived from piscatus, the perfect passive participle of the Latin verb piscor (meaning "to fish"), though not in the word pesce (Italian: [ˈpeʃʃe]). Pesce in turn derives from the Latin piscis,[14][15] which has the form pisci- when it serves as a prefix, as it often does in scholarly terms (e.g. "pisciculture", "piscivore"). A piscivore, a type of carnivore, subsists on a diet primarily of fish, whereas a pescetarian eats plant derivatives as well as fish. The Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the origin of the term "pescetarian" to 1991 and defines it as "one whose diet includes fish but no other meat".[14]

History[edit]

See also: History of Vegetarianism

The early history of pescetarianism is very much intertwined with the history of vegetarianism. Many of the civilizations, cultures, and subcultures considered to be the early origin of vegetarian diets would not be considered as truly vegetarian diets by modern standards, since they had a basis for including certain kinds of fish regularly or periodically in diets otherwise made up by plant foods. Starting around the Nara period of Japan’s history, there was a precedent for pescetarian dietary patterns. In the year 737 of the Nara period, the Emperor Seimu approved the eating of fish and shellfish at a time when the use and consumption of livestock and wild animals was still outlawed. During the twelve hundred years from the Nara Period to the Meiji Restoration Japanese people enjoyed vegetarian-style meals and on special occasions and celebrations fish was served.[20] Often seen as a part of early European vegetarianism; several orders of monks in Europe’s medieval era restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but fish consumption was never abstained from as it is often not considered to be meat. Meaning, these monks not vegetarians by today’s standards, but pescetarians. [21] In the 18th century United States vegetarianism grew more popular and Benjamin Franklin became a vegetarian at the age of 16. His time being vegetarian was short lived, as by age 18 he returned to consuming fish. [22] [23]

If you eat one another...

I balanced some time between principle and inclination, till I recollected that, when the fish were opened, I saw smaller fish taken out of their stomachs. Then thought I, "If you eat one another, I don't see why we mayn't eat you." So I dined upon cod very heartily, and continued to eat with other people, returning only now and then occasionally to a vegetable diet.

—Benjamin Franklin, 1791 USA
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin[23]

In early 19th century England, Reverend William Cowherd founded the Bible Christian Church in 1809. Cowherd advocated vegetarianism as a form of temperance and was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[24] This was the first vegetarian society, of the modern western world, and was established in 1847.[25] The Society was founded by the 140 participants of a conference at Ramsgate and by 1853 had 889 members.[26] By the end of the century, the group had attracted almost 4,000 members.[27] Members of Vegetarian Society historically did not object to the consumption of eggs, milk, or fish, as none were seen as meat.[28] In modern era The Vegetarian Society now does not consider pescetarianism to be a vegetarian diet.[10] By these standards most members of the early vegetarian societies would have not qualified as “true” vegetarians either. The Pescetarian Society has evolved separately from The Vegetarian Society to better represent the lifestyle and interests of pescetarians.[29]

Dietary pattern and comparison to other diets[edit]

Plant Foods, such as fresh produce make up the bulk of a pescetarian diet
A variety of fresh seafoods that are added to supplement this plant based diet

Being a plant-based diet,[30][31] pescetarianism is similar to many traditional diets emphasizing healthy plant foods; fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, fungi, legumes and grains, as well as fish and some shellfish. Other animal products may be included in lesser quantities but consumption of livestock, poultry and game is forbidden. Pescetarians would also not eat any dishes made with exotic meat not commonly consumed in the western world, like escargot, frog legs and turtle soup, among others. Many coastal populations tend to eat this way; it is common for pescetarian diets to share similarities with the Mediterranean diet, but it also can also be very similar to a traditional Japanese diet.[32] It usually is seen as a healthy and balanced diet.

Regular fish consumption and decreased red meat consumption have both been recommended as healthful habits to adopt by professionals,[33] and pescetarians who adhere to a plant-based diet are commonly viewed as "very health conscious" individuals.[34][35] Some researchers have recommended diets reminiscent of pescetarianism for reducing the risk of developing age related diseases, healthy weight maintenance, and life long good health. One example is biologist Dr. Longo who specifically recommends following a pescetarian diet for optimal health and life longevity. In his books and related writings he has drawn parallels between the regular diets of the healthy centenarian citizens living in different Blue Zones, such as Okinawa and Sardinia; and low-calorie diets that are predominantly plant based but contain multiple servings of healthful fish a week. [36]

The dietary habits of typical western pescetarians have been observed to share some similarities with that of lacto-ovo vegetarian's and vegan's dietary habits. Studies on the eating habits of health-conscious individuals who follow different diet patterns have shown that when compared to meat-eaters, all three of these groups consumed more: fruit, vegetables, foods made from soy, other meat analogues, other legumes, whole grains, mixed grains, seeds, nuts, peanut butter, liquid fats, plant milk, and water. Conversely, they all consumed less or no: eggs, animal milk, cheese, butter, dairy desserts, other desserts, snack foods, refined grains, salad dressings, fried potatoes (e.g. french fries), solid fats, added fats, meal-replacement drinks, hot cocoa, coffee, soda, and alcohol. Pescetarians also more frequently eat sweet potatoes than meat-eaters. Pescetarians eat more fatty fish than meat-eaters, but eat other fish slightly less. When including fish in the definition of "meat", pescetarians eat much less meat than conventional meat-eaters overall.

Elimination of red meat in favor of heart-healthy fish, and commonly picking healthier options in all diet areas has caused pescetarian’s a reputation of being very health conscious.

Pescetarians seem to consume fruit juices, herbal teas and coconut milk significantly more than any other group, and consume white and fried potatoes slightly less than any other group.[6] Due to their many similarities, pescetarians are sometimes described as vegetarian or pesco-vegetarian, but vegetarians commonly do not consider the pescetarian diet to be vegetarian. Despite this, definitions of "vegetarian" in mainstream dictionaries sometimes include fish in the diet.[37]

Motivations and rationale[edit]

Sustainability and environmental concerns[edit]

See also: Sustainable diet

Ecological sustainability and food security are growing concerns. Some pescetarians adopt their diet because of the inefficiency of other meat sources. For an example, almost 60% of the world's agricultural land is used for beef production, in yet beef makes up only 24% of the world's meat consumption and the accounts for less than 2% of the calories that are consumed throughout the world.[38] Most cattle, pigs, turkeys, and chickens in the United States are not free-range and most of the ruminants are not grass-fed, but are fed with grains specifically grown as their food. Therefore, the environmental impact and the amount of energy needed to feed these animals greatly exceeds its nutritional value.[39] Adopting a pescetarian diet addresses the humanitarian concerns of considering it and unjust use of farmable land and resources to produce grain for animal feed while there's high amounts of human hunger in the world.[38]


Pescetarians motivated by the diet's greater sustainability often prefer to eat wild-caught fish, as opposed to farm-raised carnivorous fish that require food input of other fish. It's also popular to use guides such as Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch, which has been recommended by environmental agencies, in order to determine the sustainability of their seafood sources and avoid species currently considered to be over fished.[33] Though many people motivated by environmentalism will avoid farm-raised fish entirely, there are some very environment-conscious pescetarians who do purchase and consume selectively chosen farmed fish, however. It's common for these pescetarians to use sources like Food & Water Watch's National Smart Seafood Guide in order to select farmed fish that are not only healthy and farmed without contaminants, but are also not considered to be overfished, and are species farmed in low- or no-output recirculating systems. For example, based on these qualifications, the Food & Water Watch considers USA-farmed shrimp, USA-farmed tilapia, USA-farmed catfish, and the large majority of bivalve mollusks sold on the market to be great farmed options.[33] Farmed bivalve mollusks are often considered as options for the climate-conscious because these shellfish don’t need to be fed; they are filter-feeders who can get sustenance from the water instead. [40]

The environmental impact of meat production can be a driving motive for the adoption of a diet that excludes all livestock and land animals

Similarly, people may adopt a pescetarian diet out of desire to lower their dietary carbon footprint. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports; raising livestock contributes 14.5% of all human-made carbon emissions worldwide. The biggest culprit is the raising of cattle, whose beef production accounts for 41% of the sector's overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Pork was the second-highest contributing meat at 9%.[41] Seafood, on average, has a lower carbon footprint than other animal proteins because fishing doesn’t require farmland or care of livestock. Experts have discouraged Australian Tiger prawns & Norway lobsters, and have recommended eating fish from fisheries that target small species like anchovies, mackerel and herring, as they are the most sustainable options, based on both energy use and emissions. [40] Reports from the Environmental Working Group showed that wild caught fish released significantly less green house gasses than any other animal. Sheep, cattle (and their dairy cheese), pigs, certain farm-raised fish, turkey and chicken all released more GHG than wild-caught fish and seafood, which had an emission amount more similar to that of bird eggs and potatoes.[42] Appropriately, a 2014 UK study on the dietary carbon footprint of people who followed different diet patterns found that adult pescetarian women cause 46% less greenhouse gas emissions than women who ate meat regularly. Pescetarian men cause 51% less greenhouse gas emissions than their meat-eater counterparts. This was very similar to the reduced carbon footprint of Vegetarian groups. Vegetarian women had a 50% lower carbon footprint than meat-eaters, for the men it was 54% less.[43]

Personal ethics and animal welfare[edit]

See also: Pain in fish
See also: Pain in crustaceans
See also: Pain in cephalopods

Some pescetarians regard their diets as ideal, but some may regard their diet as a transition to vegetarianism. Others consider it to be an ethical compromise (ethical pescetarianism),[44] often as a practical necessity to obtain nutrients absent or not easily found in plants.[45]

The simplicity of fish compared to other animals has caused debate among researchers on their ability to physiologically feel and psychologically suffer from pain

Furthermore, pescetarianism may be perceived as a more ethical choice because fish, along with certain other animals such as insects, plausibly may not associate pain and fear as more complex animals like mammals do.[46][47] Researchers have found that, unlike mammals, fish do not have the neuro-physiological capacity for a conscious awareness of pain. Fish do not possess a neocortex, which is the first indicator of doubt regarding whether they have pain awareness. That is, certain nerve fibres in mammals (known as c-nociceptors) involved in the sensation of intense experiences of pain are not present in primitive cartilaginous fish. Some cartilagenous fish do contain traces, such as sharks and rays, but there is an incomplete development of these fibres.

To further test this, researchers administered powerful painkillers like morphine to fish; they were found to be either totally ineffective or only partially effective in doses so high that they would result in death from overdose. In this respect, although fish do show instinctive reactions to injuries and other interventions, the physiological prerequisites for the conscious experience of pain is not present. This, in combination with the pharmacological data, has supported the notion that fish do not feel pain in human, mammalian or biological terms.[46][47] However, this theory is disputed.

Many arguments exist for the ethics of oyster consumption

Some people hold varying opinions based on the species of fish. For example, many people, including some vegans, who question the ethics of the consumption of most fish and shellfish, argue that people who select a diet based on compassion towards animals shouldn't extrapolate and immediately advocate against the consumption of some bivalve mollusks. One rational used is that sea creatures like mussels and oysters, are filter-feeding sessile organisms. Sessile bivalves can open and close their shells but this is more similar plants who close in the presence of noxious stimuli— and plants don't feel pain. These bivalves cannot escape pain, cannot differentiate between "good" and "bad" stimuli and there is no evolutionary reason for them to adapt feel pain. Another argument used for the consumption of oysters and similar mollusks is that even though there is some evidence that bivalves have opioids and opioid receptors, there isn't any firm evidence that bivalves have the genes that code for these receptors and it seems that opiates are being used to signal the immune system not to regulate pain.[48]

According to a 2011 study, the bivalve nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of ganglia. However there was no obvious cephalization found and the nervous system appeared extremely simple. The researchers mentioned to their knowledge their are no credible published descriptions of behavioral or neurophysiological responses to tissue injury in bivalves either. In layman's, they have nothing similar to a brain to even have consciousness and their nervous system is so simple that they most likely do not have the physiological necessities consistent with the ability to feel and perceive pain.[49] Which has been used as a rational to not focus on these creatures in the advocacy of animal welfare and focus on the animals who are truly suffering. The view that oysters are acceptable to eat, even by strict ethical criteria, has been propounded in the seminal 1975 text Animal Liberation, by philosopher Peter Singer. However, subsequent editions have reversed this position (advocating against eating oysters). Singer has stated that he has "gone back and forth on this over the years", and as of 2010 states that "while you could give them the benefit of the doubt, you could also say that unless some new evidence of a capacity for pain emerges, the doubt is so slight that there is no good reason for avoiding eating sustainably produced oysters".[50]

There also is the case of pescetarians who see their diet as ethically ideal not in consideration of whether fish feel and suffer from pain or not. Like some vegetarians, some pescetarians may be turned away from the consumption of land animals not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practises involved in the raising and slaughter of animals, e.g, factory farming and the industrialization of animal slaughter. Modern farming practices such as, caging animals rather than allowing free range living, other maltreatment on farms, and unethical hunting practices aren’t concerns that are usually relevant to fishing, especially when catching fish that are easily sustainable.

Health consciousness[edit]

Benefits of fish consumption[edit]

One commonly cited reason for the adoption of pescetarianism is health,[51] based on the proven findings that red meat is detrimental to health in many cases due to non-lean red meats containing high amounts of saturated fats,[52][53] choline, and carnitine.[54] Eating certain kinds of fish raises HDL levels,[55][56] and some fish are a convenient source of omega-3 fatty acids,[57] as well as possessing numerous health benefits in one food variety.[58]

Benefits over other diet patterns[edit]

The Oxford Vegetarian Study of 1999 found that meat-eaters had unfavorable total cholesterol levels over 5.2mmol/L, in the "borderline high" range. Pescetarians, vegetarians, and vegans enjoyed the benefit of having lower total cholesterol levels well in the range defined as "desirable", as well as lower LDL levels. Along with vegetarians, the pescetarian group had favorably higher HDL levels. Pescetarians had the highest levels of the two. Vegans, however didn't have improved HDL levels compared to the meat-eaters. When all-cause mortality, ischaemic heart disease mortality, and cancer mortality were assessed, pescetarians, vegetarians, and vegans together had reduced mortality rates when compared to meat-eaters. It's noted that this benefit was restricted to the individuals who never smoked and that the subject's longevity may be in part attributable to being more health conscious than the meat-eaters.[59] A 1999 meta-analysis of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in Western countries found that, when compared to regular meat-eaters, mortality from ischemic heart disease was 20% lower in occasional meat-eaters, 26% lower in vegans, and 34% lower in pescetarians and ovo-lacto vegetarians.[60] In 2013, an Adventist Health study found that pescetarians have the lowest all cause mortality, ischemic heart disease mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality and other mortality when compared to meat-eaters, semi-vegetarians, lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and vegans.[61] The 2016 Oxford vegetarian study and the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition found that when compared to regular meat eaters, low-meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, pescetarians had the lowest mortality from all malignant cancers combined, both before and after adjusting for different variables. Pescetarian reduced mortality was most notable for colorectal cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and respiratory system diseases.[62] When adjusted for specific variables, pescetarians also seemed to have the lowest all-cause mortality rate by a modest amount.[63] When compared to regular meat-eaters specifically, low-meat consumption and vegetarianism provided intermediate benefits in lowered malignant cancer mortality. Vegans were the only group studied who had a higher malignant cancer mortality and all-cause mortality than regular meat eaters. Researchers note the seemingly increased mortality for Vegans is likely too slight to be considered statistically significant or to make conclusions from, however.[64]

Other considerations[edit]

Further information: Mercury in fish

Concerns have been raised about consuming some fish varieties containing toxins such as mercury and PCBs,[65] though it is possible to select fish that contain little or no mercury and moderate the consumption of mercury-containing fish.[66][67]

Abstinence in religion[edit]

Further information: Religion and vegetarianism

Christianity[edit]

In both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, pescetarianism is referred to as a form of abstinence. During fast periods, Eastern Orthodox and Catholics often abstain from meat, dairy, and fish; on certain days, fish is allowed while meat and dairy remain forbidden.[68] In the Roman Church, the black fast was a period during which only fish and vegetables were eaten; Fridays remain pescetarian, unless a national bishops conference substitutes an alternative penance. This practice also extends to some Lutheran and Reformed traditions.

Judaism[edit]

Pescetarianism (provided the fish is ruled kosher) conforms to Jewish dietary laws, as kosher fish is "pareve"—neither "milk" nor "meat". In some Sephardic Jewish homes, fish is never served alongside milk products. All non-bony fish seafood is non-kosher.[69] In essence, aquatic animals such as mammals like dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The definition of a fish in Judaism is broader (sea-life) than the scientific classification of "fish". In 2015, a member of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society.[29]

Hinduism[edit]

By tradition, most Hindu Brahmin communities follow a strict lacto-vegetarian diet. However, there are a number of Brahmin sub-groups that allow the consumption of fish. These include the Goud Saraswat Brahmin community from coastal south-western India.[70] This community regards seafood in general as vegetables from the sea, and refrain from eating any land-based animals. Other Hindu Brahmin communities who consume seafood in great quantity are the Maithili Brahmin and the Bengali Brahmin.[71] The latter also eat meat on special occasions. Among the northeast Indian Hindus of Assam, Manipur, and Tripura, it is common for pescetarians to include poultry in their diets.[citation needed]

Islam[edit]

Eating of fish is permitted in Islam without need for the usual slaughter procedure required for meat.

List of notable pescetarians[edit]

See also[edit]

  • Semi-vegetarianism – other forms of semi-vegetarianism that include occasional meat consumption
  • Legal Sea Foods – Boston, Massachusetts–based network of seafood restaurants that uses the "pescatarian" term in their TV advertising
  • List of diets

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External links[edit]

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