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Proto-Indo-Iranian language

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Proto-Indo-Iranian
Proto-Indo-Iranic (PIIr)
Reconstruction ofIndo-Iranian languages
RegionEurasian Steppe
Eralate 3rd m. BCE
Reconstructed
ancestor
Lower-order reconstructions

Proto-Indo-Iranian, also called Proto-Indo-Iranic or Proto-Aryan,[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.

Proto-Indo-Iranian was a satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from its ancestor, the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from Vedic Sanskrit (of the Rigveda)[2] and Old Avestan (of the Gathas), its descendants.

It is the ancestor of Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages, predominantly spoken in the Southern Asian subregion of Eurasia.

Descriptive phonology

[edit]
Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments
Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Laryngeal
dental/alveolar post-alveolar first second
Plosive voiceless *p *t *ć *č *k
voiced *b *d *ȷ́ *ǰ *g
aspirated * * *ȷ́ʰ *ǰʰ *
Fricative voiceless *s *š *H
voiced (*z) (*ž)
Nasal *m *n
Liquid (*l) *r *
Semivowel *y *w
PII vowel segments
High *i (*ī) *u (*ū)
Low *a *ā

In addition to the vowels, *H, and * could function as the syllabic core. In many reconstructions, instances of *iH and *uH occur instead of *ī and *ū.

Two palatal series

[edit]

Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to have contained two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[3] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the primary or first series (*ć *ȷ́ *ȷ́ʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the second or secondary series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars, *k, *g, *gʰ and *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ, in palatalizing contexts). The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[4][5]

PII Proto-Indo-Aryan Sanskrit Proto-Iranian Avestan Old Persian Nuristani
*ć ś ([ɕ]) ś ([ɕ]) *ts s θ ċ ([ts]) / š
*ȷ́ j ([dʑ]) j ([dʑ]) *dz z d j ([dz]) / z
*ȷ́ʰ źh ([dʑʱ]) h ([ɦ])
*č c ([tɕ]) c ([tɕ]) *č č č č
*ǰ j ([ɖʐ]) j ([dʑ]) *ǰ ǰ ǰ ǰ / ž
*ǰʰ źh ([ɖʐʱ]) h ([ɦ])

Laryngeal

[edit]

Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic positions. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Rigvedic Sanskrit and Avestan as unwritten glottal stops as evidenced by metrics.[6]

Accent

[edit]

Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[7]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent system similar to present-day Japanese, conventionally indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.

Historical phonology

[edit]

The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.

A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:

  • The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ć, *ȷ́, *ȷ́ʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[8]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*ḱm̥tóm *ćatám śatám satəm centum hund(red) id
*ǵónu *ȷ́ā́nu jā́nu zānu genū knee id
*ǵʰimós *ȷ́ʰimás himá ziiā̊ hiems 'winter' / 'snow'
*kʷós *kás kás ka quis who id
*gʷṓws *gā́wš gaus gao bōs cow id
*gʷʰormós *gʰarmás gharmás garəma formus warm 'warmth, heat'
  • The PIE liquids *l *r *l̥ *r̥ merge as *r *r̥.[9]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*ḱléwos *ćráwas śrávas srauua clueō 'fame, honour, word'
*wĺ̥kʷos *wŕ̥kas vŕ̥kas vəhrka lupus wolf id
*gʷʰormós *gʰarmás gharmás garəma formus warm 'warmth, heat'
  • The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[9]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*déḱm̥ *dáćm̥ *dáća dáśa dasā decem ten id
*gʷm̥tós *gm̥tás *gatás gatá gata ventus come 'come, gone'
*n̥bʰrós *n̥bʰrás *abʰrás abhrá aβra imber 'rain, cloud'
  • Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dᶻdʰ.[10]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan English Glossary
*ubʰtós *ubdʰás sámubdha ubdaēna web, weave 'woven' / 'made of woven material'
*wr̥dʰtós *wr̥dᶻdʰás vr̥ddʰá vərəzda 'grown, mature'
*dʰéwgʰti *dáwgdʰi dógdhi *daogdi daugh(·ter) 'to milk'
  • The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following a liquid (*r *r̥ *l *l̥), a high vowel (*i *u), a PIE velar (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ *k *g *gʰ *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) or the syllabic laryngeal *H̥.[11] Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[9]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*wisós *wišás víṣas viša vīrus 'poison, venom'
*ḱeHs- *ćH̥šam aśiṣam sīšā 'teach!'
*ǵéwseti *ȷ́áwšati jóṣati zaošō gustus 'to like, taste'
*kʷsép- *kšáp- kṣáp- xšap- 'darkness'
*plúsis *plúšiš plúṣi *fruši pūlex 'flea, noxious insect'
*nisdós *niždás nīḷá/nīḍá *nižda nīdus nest 'nest'
  • Before a dental occlusive, *ć becomes *š and *ȷ́ becomes *ž. *ȷ́ʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[12]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*h₁oḱtṓ *Haćtā́ *Haštā́ aṣṭá ašta octō eight 'eight'
*dr̥ḱtós *dr̥ćtás *dr̥štás dr̥ṣṭá dərəšta 'seen, visible, apparent'
*mr̥ǵt- *mr̥ȷ́d- *mr̥žd- mr̥ḷ-/mr̥ḍ- mərəžd- 'to forgive, pardon'
*uǵʰtós *uȷ́dʰás *uždʰás ūḍhá *užda vector weight 'carried'
  • The sequence *ćš was simplified to *šš.[13]
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*h₂éḱs- *Háćšas *Háššas ákṣa aša axis axle 'axle, shoulder'
  • The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[10] through an intermediate *kʲ *gʲ *gʲʰ.
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*-kʷe *-kʲa *-ča -ca -ča -que 'and'
*gʷih₃wós *gʲiHwás *ǰiHwás jīvás juuō vīvus quick 'alive, living'
*gʷʰénti *gʲʰánti *ǰʰánti hánti jaiṇti -fendit 'slays'
PIE pre-PII PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin Glossary
*deh₃tórm̥ *daHtā́rm̥ *daHtā́ram dātā́ram dātārəm datōrem 'giver' (accusative singular)
  • The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*dédeh₃ti *dádaHti dádāti dadāiti dat 'to give'
*h₃dónts *Hdánts dant dantan dēns tooth 'tooth'
*bʰréh₂tēr *bʰráHtā bhrā́tr̥ brātar frāter brother 'brother'
*wṓkʷs *wā́kš vā́k vāxš vōx 'voice'
  • In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[15][16]
  • Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin Glossary
*ph₂tréy *pitráy pitré piθrē patrī 'father' (dative singular)
  • Following a consonant and word-final
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Glossary
*-medʰh₂ *-madʰHi -mahi -maidī/-maiδi (1st person plural middle ending)
  • The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[17]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Latin English Glossary
*ph₂tḗr *pHtā́ pitā́ ptā pater father id
  • According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[18]
PIE PII Sanskrit Avestan Glossary
*bʰéh₂geti *bʰáǰati bhájati bažat̰ 'to divide, distribute'

Subsequent sound changes

[edit]

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilants *z, *ẓ, *ź; among those to Proto-Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[19]
PIE O.Indc/VS Av PIE OInd/VS Av
*p > p p *ph̥₂tḗr "father" pitā́ "father" pitar- "father"
*b > b b *bél- "strong" bálam "strength"
*bʰ > bh b *réh₂tēr "brother" bhrā́tār- "brother" brātar- "brother
*t > t t *tuHóm "thou" tuvám "thou" tvəm "thou"
*d > d d *dóru "wood" dā́ru "wood" dāru- "wood"
*dʰ > dh d *oHnéh₂- "grain" dhānā́- "grain" dāna- "grain"
*ḱ > ś s * "ten" śa "ten" dasa "ten"
> j z *ǵónu "knee" jā́nu "knee" zānu- "knee"
*ǵʰ > h z *ǵʰimós "cold" himá- "cold, frost" zəmaka- "winterstorm"
*k > k ~ c x ~ č *kruh₂rós "bloody" krūrá- "bloody" xrūra- "bloody"
*ket "may he run" tačat̰ "may he run"
*g > g ~ j g ~ ǰ *h₂éuges- "strength" ójas- "strength" aoǰah "strength"
*h₂ugrós "strong" ugrá- "strong" ugra- "strong"
*gʰ > gh ~ h g ~ ǰ *dl̥Hós "long" dīrghá- "long" darəga- "long"
*dleHistos "longest" drā́ghiṣṭha draǰišta- "longest"
*kʷ > k ~ c k ~ č *ós "who" káḥ "who" kō "who"
*e "and" ca "and" ́ča "and"
*gʷ > g ~ j g ~ ǰ *ou- "cow" gav- "cow" gau- "cow"
*ih₃wós "alive" jīvá- "alive" OPer: ǰīva- "living"
*gʷʰ > gh ~ h g ~ ǰ *gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.) ghnánti "strike" (pl.)
*gʷʰénti "strikes" hánti "strikes" ǰainti "strikes"
*s > s s ~ h *septm̥ "seven" saptá "seven" hapta "seven"
*h₁ésti "is" ásti "is" asti "is"
*y > y y *yugóm "yoke" yugam "yoke" yuga- "yoke"
*w > v v *wéǵʰeti "drives, rides" váhati "drives" vazaiti "travels"
*m > m m *méh₂tēr "mother" mātár- "mother" mātar- "mother"
*n > n n *nós "us" nas "us" nō "us"
*l > l ~ r r *kʷeleti "moves" carati "moves" caraiti "moves"
*r > r r *réh₂tēr "brother" bhrā́tār- "brother" brātar- "brother
*n̥ > a a *- "un-" a- "un-" a- "un-"
*m̥ > a a *tóm "hundred" śatám "hundred" satəm "hundred"
*l̥ > ərər *wĺ̥kʷos "wolf" vŕ̥ka- "wolf" vəhrka- "wolf"
*r̥ > ərər *ŕ̥d- "heart" hŕ̥d- "heart" zərəd- "heart"
*i > i i *linékʷti "leaves" riṇákti "leaves" irinaxti "releases"
*e > a a *déḱm̥ "ten" dáśa "ten" dasa "ten"
> ā ā *h₂nr "man" nā "man" nā "man"
*a > a a *h₂éǵeti "drives" ájati "drives" azaiti "drives"
> ā ā *méh₂tēr "mother" mātā́ "mother" mātar- "mother"
*o > a ~ ā a ~ ā *ǵómbʰos "tooth, peg" jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk"
*ǵónu "knee" jānu "knee" zānu- "knee"
> ā ā *oHnéh₂- "grain" dhānā́- "grain" dāna- "grain"
*u > u u *yugóm "yoke" yugám "yoke" yuga- "yoke"
> ū ū *mū́s "mouse" mū́ṣ- "mouse" NPer mūs "mouse"
*h₁ > *h₁ésti "is" ásti "is" asti "is"
*h₂ > *h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear" ŕ̥kṣa- "bear" arəša- "bear"
*h₃ > *h₃ókʷs(i) "eye" ákṣi "eye" aši "eye"
*h₄ > *h₄órǵʰis "testicle" ərəzi- "testicle"
Proto-Indo-Iranian Old Iranian (Av, OP) Vedic Sanskrit
*Háćwas "horse" Av aspa, OP asa áśva
*bʰaHgás "portion, share" Av bāga bhāgá
*bʰráHtā "brother" Av, OP brātar bhrā́tr̥
*bʰúHmiš "earth, land" OP būmiš bhū́mi-
*mártyas "mortal, man" Av maṣ̌iia, OP martiya mártya
*mā́Has "moon" Av mā̊, OP māha mā́s
*wásr̥ "spring" Av vaŋhar vásara "morning"
*Hr̥tás "truth" Av aṣ̌a, OP arta r̥tá
*dʰráwgʰas "lie" Av draoγa, OP drauga drógha "using malicious words"
*sáwmas "pressed (juice)" Av haoma sóma-

Morphology and basic vocabulary

[edit]

Proto-Indo-Iranian has preserved much of the morphology of Proto-Indo-European (PIE): thematic and athematic inflection in both nouns and verbs, all three numbers (singular, dual and plural), all the tense, mood and voice categories in the verb, and the cases in the noun.

Personal pronouns (nominative case)

[edit]

Pronouns, nouns and adjectives are inflected into the eight cases of PIE: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative, locative and instrumental (with also a comitative/sociative meaning).

Pronoun PIE PII
I *éǵ > *eǵHóm *aȷ́Hám > *aȷ́ʰám
You *túh₂ *túH
He *ey- (*eyóm?)

*só

*ayám

*sá

She *séh₂ *sáH
It *tód *tád
We *wéy > *weyóm *wayám
You (all) *yū́ *yúH
They (m.) *tóy *táy
They (f.) *téh₂es *tā́s (or *táHas?)
They (n.) *téh₂ *táH

Three examples of verbs

[edit]

In verbs, the chief innovation is the creation of a passive conjugation with the suffix *-yá, with middle inflection.[20]

The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugaten in the present tense.

"To bear/carry"
Pronoun PIE PII
I *bʰéroh₂ > *bʰéroh₂mi *bʰáraHmi
You *bʰéresi *bʰárasi
He, she, it *bʰéreti *bʰárati
We *bʰéromos > *bʰéroh₂mos? *bʰáraHmas
You (all) *bʰérete *bʰáratʰa
They *bʰéronti *bʰáranti
"To call/summon"
Pronoun PIE PII
I (*ǵʰéwyemi >) *ǵʰwéyoh₂mi? *ȷ́ʰwáyaHmi
You *ǵʰwéyesi *ȷ́ʰwayasi
He, she, it *ǵʰwéyeti *ȷ́ʰwáyati
We *ǵʰwéyomos > *ǵʰwéyoh₂mos? *ȷ́ʰwáyaHmas
You (all) *ǵʰwéyete *ȷ́ʰwayatʰa
They *ǵʰwéyonti *ȷ́ʰwáyanti
"To be" (athematic)
Pronoun PIE PII
I *h₁ésmi *Hásmi
You *h₁ési *Hási
He, she, it *h₁ésti *Hásti
We *h₁smós *Hsmás
You (all) *h₁sté *Hstʰá
They *h₁sénti *Hsánti

Examples of noun declension

[edit]

Despite Proto-Indo-Iranian preserving much of the original morphology of Proto-Indo-European, an important innovation in the noun is the creation of a genitive plural ending *-nām used with vowel stems.[20]

The following examples lack the dual number.

Masculine noun

[edit]
"Wolf"
Case Singular Plural
Nom. PIE *wĺ̥kʷos > PII *wŕ̥kas PIE *wĺ̥kʷoes > PII *wŕ̥kā(s)
Gen. *wĺ̥kʷosyo > *wŕ̥kasya *wĺ̥kʷoHom > *wŕ̥kāna(H)m
Dat. *wĺ̥kʷoey > *wŕ̥kāy *wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas
Acc. *wĺ̥kʷom > *wŕ̥kam *wĺ̥kʷoms > *wŕ̥kāns
Voc. *wĺ̥kʷe > *wŕ̥ka *wĺ̥kʷoes > *wŕ̥kā(s)
Abl. *wĺ̥kʷead > *wŕ̥kāt *wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas
Loc. *wĺ̥kʷey/oy > *wŕ̥kay *wĺ̥kʷoysu > *wŕ̥kayšu
Instr. *wĺ̥kʷoh₁ > *wŕ̥kā *wĺ̥kʷōys > *wŕ̥kāyš

Feminine noun

[edit]
"Cow" (e.g., Latin "vacca")
Case Singular Plural
Nom. PIE *woḱéh₂ > PII *waćáH PIE *woḱéh₂es > PII *waćā́s
Gen. *woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs *woḱéh₂oHom > *waćáHnām
Dat. *woḱéh₂ey > *waćáyaHy *woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas
Acc. *woḱā́m > *waćā́m *woḱéh₂m̥s > *waćā́s
Voc. *woḱéh₂ > *waćay *woḱéh₂es > *waćā́s
Abl. *woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs *woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas
Loc. *woḱéh₂(i) > *waćáyaH(m) *woḱéh₂su > *waćáHsu
Instr. *woḱéh₂h₁ > *waćáyaH́ *woḱéh₂mis > *waćáHbʰiš

Neuter noun

[edit]
"Yoke"
Case Singular Plural
Nom. PIE *yugóm > PII *yugám PIE *yugéh₂ > PII *yugáH
Gen. *yugósyo > *yugásya *yugóHom > *yugā́na(H)m
Dat. *yugóey > *yugā́y *yugómos > *yugáybʰyas
Acc. *yugóm > *yugám *yugéh₂ > *yugáH
Voc. *yugóm > *yugám *yugéh₂ > *yugáH
Abl. *yugéad > *yugā́t *yugómos > *yugáybʰyas
Loc. *yugéy/óy > *yugáy *yugóysu > *yugáyšu
Instr. *yugóh₁ > *yugā́ *yugṓys > *yugā́yš

An example of adjectival declension

[edit]

The morphology in adjectival declension is identical to the one in noun declension. The following example lacks the dual number.

"Immortal" (*n̥-mr̥t-ós)
Case Masculine

(singular)

Feminine

(singular)

Neuter

(singular)

Nom. PIE *n̥mr̥tós > PII *amŕ̥tas PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥taH PIE *n̥mr̥tóm > PII *amŕ̥tam
Gen. *n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya *n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs *n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya
Dat. *n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tāy *n̥mr̥téh₂ey > *amŕ̥tayaHi *n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tā́y
Acc. *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam *n̥mr̥tā́m > *amŕ̥tā́m *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam
Voc. *n̥mr̥té > *amŕ̥ta *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥tay *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam
Abl. *n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tāt *n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs *n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tā́t
Loc. *n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay *n̥mr̥téh₂(i) > *amŕ̥tayaH(m) *n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay
Instr. *n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā *n̥mr̥téh₂h₁ > *amŕ̥tayaH *n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā́
Case Masculine

(plural)

Feminine

(plural)

Neuter

(plural)

Nom. PIE *n̥mr̥tóes > PII *amŕ̥ā(s) PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂es > PII *amŕ̥ā́s PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥áH
Gen. *n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕāna(H)m *n̥mr̥téh₂oHom > *amŕ̥áHnām *n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕ̥ā́na(H)m
Dat. *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas *n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas
Acc. *n̥mr̥tóms > *amŕ̥āns *n̥mr̥téh₂m̥s > *amŕ̥ā́s *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH
Voc. *n̥mr̥tóes > *amŕ̥ā(s) *n̥mr̥téh₂es > *amŕ̥ā́s *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH
Abl. *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas *n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas
Loc. *n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥ayšu *n̥mr̥téh₂su > *amŕ̥áHsu *n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥áyšu
Instr. *n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥āyš *n̥mr̥téh₂mis > *amŕ̥áHbʰiš *n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥ā́yš

Numerals

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Numeral PIE PII
One (1) *h₁óynos > *h₁óykos *Háykas
Two (2) *dwóh₁ *dwáH
Three (3) *tréyes *tráyas
Four (4) *kʷetwóres *čatwā́ras
Five (5) *pénkʷe *pánča
Six (6) *swéḱs *šwáćš
Seven (7) *septḿ̥ *saptá
Eight (8) *oḱtṓw *Haštā́
Nine (9) *h₁néwn̥ *Hnáwa
Ten (10) *déḱm̥ *dáća

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Peter Bellwood; Immanuel Ness (10 November 2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1.
  2. ^ Hock, Hans Henrich (2015). "Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation". In Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos (eds.). Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development. John Benjamins.
  3. ^ Burrow, pp. 78–79
  4. ^ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London; New York: Routledge. p. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X.
  5. ^ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London; New York: Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9.
  6. ^ Beekes (1988), p. 50
  7. ^ Beekes, p. 55
  8. ^ Burrow, pp. 74–75
  9. ^ a b c Fortson, p. 182
  10. ^ a b Fortson, p. 181
  11. ^ F. B. J. Kuiper. 1976. "Old East Iranian dialects." Indo-Iranian Journal 18, p. 242.
  12. ^ Burrow, p. 91
  13. ^ Burrow, pp. 92–94
  14. ^ Fortson, p. 183
  15. ^ Beekes, pp. 85–86
  16. ^ Lubotsky, p. 53
  17. ^ get ref
  18. ^ Beekes, pp. 88–89
  19. ^ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
  20. ^ a b Fortson p. 205

Bibliography

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Further reading

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Contacts between Indo-Iranian and Uralic
  • Kuz’Mina, E.E. (2007). "Indo-Iranian contacts with other linguistic groups". In J.P. Mallory (ed.). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 199–204. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.53.
  • Carpelan, Christian; Parpola, Asko (2017). "On the emergence, contacts and dispersal of Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Uralic and Proto-Aryan in an archaeological perspective". In Adam Hyllested; Benedicte Nielsen Whitehead; Thomas Olander; Birgit Anette Olsen (eds.). Language and Prehistory of the Indo-European Peoples: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective. Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European. Vol. 7. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag. pp. 77–87. ISBN 9788763545310.
  • Parpola, Asko (2017a). "Finnish vatsa ~ Sanskrit vatsá and the formation of Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages" (PDF). Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja. 2017 (96): 245–286. doi:10.33340/susa.70229.
  • Holopainen, Sampsa (2019). Indo-Iranian borrowings in Uralic: Critical overview of sound substitutions and distribution criterion. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. PhD thesis.
  • Holopainen, Sampsa (2020). "Indo-Iranian loanwords in Finnic - A critical overview". Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований. XVI (3): 613–668. doi:10.30842/alp2306573716319. Access date: 11.05.2024.
  • Bjørn Rasmus G. Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone. Evol Hum Sci. 2022 Apr 22;4:e23. doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.16 PMID 37599704; PMCID: PMC10432883.
  • Sámmol Ánte, Luobbal Sámmol (2022). "Proto-Uralic". In Marianne Bakró-Nagy; Johanna Laakso; Elena Skribnik (eds.). The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–27 [25–26]. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-876766-4. Accessed 10 May 2024.
  • Holopainen, S. (2023). "The RUKI Rule in Indo-Iranian and the Early Contacts with Uralic". In Nikolaos Lavidas; Alexander Bergs; Elly van Gelderen; Ioanna Sitaridou (eds.). Internal and External Causes of Language Change: The Naxos Papers. Springer Nature. pp. 315–346. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-30976-2_11. ISBN 9783031309762.
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