Ultranationalism
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Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violent coercion) to pursue its specific interests.[1][2][3] Ultranationalist entities have been associated with the engagement of political violence even during peacetime.[4] The belief system has also been cited as the inspiration behind acts of organized mass murder in the context of international conflict, (e.g. the Cambodian genocide.)[5]
In ideological terms, scholars such as British political theorist Roger Griffin have found that ultranationalism arises from seeing modern nation-states as living organisms directly akin to physical people such that they can decay, grow, die, and additionally experience rebirth. Political campaigners have divided societies in stark mythological ways between those perceived as degenerately inferior and those perceived as a part of a great cultural destiny. Ultranationalism is an aspect of fascism, with historic governments such as the regimes of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Francoist Spain building on ultranationalist foundations using specific plans of supposed widespread national renewal.[3]
Background concepts and broader context[edit]
According to Janusz Bugajski, "in its most extreme or developed forms, ultra-nationalism resembles fascism, marked by a xenophobic disdain of other nations, support for authoritarian political arrangements verging on totalitarianism, and a mythical emphasis on the 'organic unity' between a charismatic leader, an organizationally amorphous movement-type party, and the nation".[6]
British political theorist Roger Griffin has stated that ultranationalism is essentially founded on xenophobia in a way that finds supposed legitimacy "through deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies". It can also draw on "vulgarized forms" of different aspects of the natural sciences such as anthropology and genetics, eugenics specifically playing a role, in order "to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy and subhumanness" in Griffin's opinion. Ultranationalists view the modern nation-state as, according to Griffin, a living organism directly akin to a physical person such that it can decay, grow, die, and additionally experience rebirth. He has highlighted Nazi Germany as a regime which was founded on ultranationalism.[3]
Historical movements and analysis[edit]
U.S. historian Walter Skya has written in Japan's Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalism that ultranationalism in Japan drew upon traditional Shinto spiritual beliefs and militaristic attitudes regarding the nation's racial identity. By the early twentieth century, fanaticism arising from this combination of ethnic nationalism and religious nationalism caused opposition to democratic governance and support for Japanese territorial expansion. Skya particularly noted in his work the connection between ultranationalism and political violence by citing how, between 1921 and 1936, three serving and two former Prime Ministers of Japan were assassinated. The totalitarian Japanese government of the 1930s and 1940s relied not just on encouragement by the country's military but additionally enjoyed widespread popular support.[4]
Historian Sambo Manara of Cambodia has found that the belief system sets forth a vision of supremacism in terms of international relations whereby hatred of foreigners to the point of extremism leads to policies of social separation and segregation. He has labeled the Cambodian genocide as a specific example of the ideology when applied in practice. "Obviously, it was ultranationalism, combined with the notion of class struggle in communism and a group of politicians, which lead to the establishment of Democratic Kampuchea, a ruthless regime which claimed approximately three million lives", he has remarked, with militant leaders finally deciding to "cut all diplomatic and economic ties with almost all countries" due to a "narrow-minded doctrine without taking into account all the losses they would face". In Manara's opinion, "this effectively destroyed the nation."[5]
The absolute dictatorship of Romanian leader Nicolae Ceausescu has additionally been described as an example of communism taking an ultranationalist approach by Haaretz. The Israeli publication cited the antisemitism of the dictator in terms of actions such as his historical denialism about the Holocaust. Ceausescu additionally took efforts to purge those of Jewish background from political authority.[7]
Haaretz has also labeled Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban as an ultranationalist given that leader's views on autocratic rule and racial identity, particularly Orban's public condemnation of "race-mixing".[7] He's also been called as such as by NPR, an American news agency, with the politician's inherent opposition to democratic liberalism as a concept being cited.[8]
Israeli political journalist Gideon Levy wrote in late 2015 that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has led to a decay in the civil society within Israel, with an ultranationalist movement that "bases its power on incitement to hatred" using "folkloric religion" gaining ground over decades such that:
"They were the only ones willing to fight for a collective goal. They did not rule out any means. They extorted and exploited the weaknesses of government, the guilt feelings and confusion of the secular camp, and they won. They did so systematically and smartly: First they established the foundation of their existence, the settlement enterprise. After they achieved their goal– the killing off of any diplomatic agreement and destruction of the two-state solution– they were free to turn to their next target: taking control of the public debate in Israel on the road to changing its power structure, character and substance."[9]
Russian irredentism in which a militant imperial state is proposed that stretches across both Asia and Europe without regard for current international borders has been described as ultranationalism by the U.S. publication Los Angeles Times, with the aggressive actions of Russian President Vladimir Putin being credited as an evolution of political arguments by multiple figures from the past. Examples include Nikolai Berdyaev, Aleksandr Dugin (the author of 1997's The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia), Lev Gumilyov, and Ivan Ilyin. The newspaper highlighted the justifications given in support of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, quoting Putin's declaration that he must militarily combat an "empire of lies" created by the U.S. to suffocate Russia.[10]
The business-centered publication Bloomberg News stated in a 2021 story that the rise of ultranationalist viewpoints in China, particularly in terms of those who advocate for extremism on social media, presents a direct challenge to the current government of the nation, with General Secretary Xi Jinping facing opposition in his attempts to set forth climate change related economic reforms about greenhouse gases. Chinese political activists have asserted, according to the publication, a conspiracy theory that said reforms represent some kind of capitulation to foreign interests at the expense of China's citizens. Environmentalist policies have come into being in a complex fashion inside China, facing complicated opinions among many.[11]
Ultranationalist political parties[edit]
Currently represented in national legislatures[edit]
The following political parties have been characterised as ultranationalist.
Australia: Pauline Hanson's One Nation[12]
Austria: Freedom Party of Austria[13][14][15]
Belgium: Vlaams Belang[16][17]
Bulgaria: Revival[18][19][20]
Croatia: Homeland Movement[21]
Cyprus: ELAM[22][23]
Czech Republic: Freedom and Direct Democracy[24]
Denmark: Danish People's Party[25][26][27]
Estonia: Conservative People's Party of Estonia[28][29][30]
France: National Rally[31]
Finland: Finns Party[32]
Germany: Alternative for Germany[33][34]
Greece: Greek Solution[35]
Hungary: Our Homeland Movement[36]
India: Shiv Sena[37]
Israel: Religious Zionist Party,[38] Otzma Yehudit[39]
Italy: Brothers of Italy[40][41]
Poland: National Movement[42]
Romania: Alliance for the Union of Romanians[43][44]
Russia: Liberal Democratic Party of Russia,[45] Rodina[46]
Serbia: Serbian Party Oathkeepers[47][48]
South Africa: Economic Freedom Fighters[49][50]
Slovakia: People's Party Our Slovakia,[51] Republic[52]
Spain: Vox[53][54]
Sweden: Sweden Democrats[55][56][57]
Switzerland: Swiss People's Party[58]
Turkey: Nationalist Movement Party,[59][60]
Ukraine: Svoboda[61][62][63]
The following political parties have been described as having ultranationalist factions.
Hungary: Fidesz[64][65]
India: Bharatiya Janata Party[66]
Indonesia: Gerindra[67]
Italy: Lega[68]
Japan: Liberal Democratic Party[69][70][71][72][73]
Poland: Law and Justice[74][75]
Russia: United Russia[76][77]
Represented parties with former ultranationalist tendencies or factions[edit]
The following political parties historically had ultranationalist tendencies or factions.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Serb Democratic Party[78][79]
Croatia: Croatian Democratic Union[80]
Hungary: Jobbik[81][82][83]
Lebanon: Kataeb Party[84]
Indonesia: Golkar[85]
Israel: Yisrael Beiteinu[86]
Republic of China: Kuomintang[87]
North Macedonia: VMRO-DPMNE[88]
Serbia: Dveri,[89][90][91] Serbian Renewal Movement[92]
Syria: Syrian Social Nationalist Party[93]
Formerly represented in national legislatures[edit]
Bulgaria: Attack,[94] VMRO,[95][96] National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria[95]
Cambodia: Communist Party of Kampuchea[97]
Croatia: Croatian Party of Rights,[80] Croatian Pure Party of Rights[80]
Germany: German National People's Party[98]
Greece: Golden Dawn,[99][100][101] Popular Orthodox Rally[102]
India: Hindu Mahasabha[103]
Israel: Kach[104]
Italy: National Fascist Party[105]
Japan: Imperial Rule Assistance Association[106]
Myanmar: Union Solidarity and Development Party[107][108]
Portugal: National Union[109]
Philippines: Kilusang Bagong Lipunan[110]
Rwanda: Coalition for the Defence of the Republic[111]
Serbia: Serbian Radical Party,[112] Party of Serbian Unity[113][114][115]
Slovakia: Slovak National Party[116][117][118]
South Africa: National Party[119]
South Korea: National Youth[120]
Spain: FET y de las JONS[121]
Turkey: Victory Party,[122][123] Great Union Party[124]
Ukraine: Right Sector[125][126][127]
Ultranationalist organizations[edit]
India: Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh,[128] Bajrang Dal[129]
Indonesia: Pancasila Youth[130]
Israel: Im Tirtzu,[131] Lehava[132]
Ireland: Army Comrades Association[133]
Japan: Nippon Kaigi,[134][135][136][137][138] Zaitokukai[139][140]
Malaysia: Perkasa[141]
Mexico: Nationalist Front of Mexico, National Synarchist Union[142][143]
Myanmar: Patriotic Association of Myanmar[144][145][146]
Poland: All-Polish Youth[147][148]
Russia: Russian Imperial Movement,[149] Wagner Group,[150]
Sri Lanka: Bodu Bala Sena, Sinhala Ravaya[151]
Turkey: Grey Wolves[152][153][154]
Ukraine: Azov Regiment[155][156][157]
United Kingdom: English Defence League,[158] Siol nan Gaidheal[159]
United States: Proud Boys[160]
See also[edit]
- Autarky
- Far-right politics
- Global Times – Chinese ultra-nationalistic media.[161]
- Ilminism
- Palingenesis / Palingenetic ultranationalism
- Proto-fascism
- Putinism[76]
- Totalitarianism
- Uyoku dantai
References[edit]
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A leader of Germany's ultranationalist AfD party in 2017 bemoaned how the country's focus on atoning ...
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A married couple have run into trouble for forging the first local pact between Angela Merkel's party and the ultranationalist Alternative for Germany (AfD) in defiance of the chancellor.
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Smaller parties, such as the ultra-nationalist Greek Solution and leftist MeRA25, headed by Yanis Varoufakis, the former finance minister, were targeting younger Greeks.
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the rightward shift of Fidesz is noticeable by their growing co-optation of ultranationalist narratives
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With its ultranationalist policy, Orban's Fidesz party managed to take over the positions of the far-right Jobbik party
- ^ deSouza, Peter Ronald (2006). India's Political Parties. SAGE. p. 19.
The other major national party of today, the Bharatiya Janata Party, does not quite fit the religious fundamentalist, the ethnicity-based or the fascist/ultra nationalist categories although it shares, to a large degree, elements of all three
- ^ "Reformasi Reloaded? Implications of Indonesia's 2014 Elections". Center for Security Studies. 9 September 2014.
Prabowo's coalition consisted of his own ultra nationalist Gerindra
- ^ Krieg, Andreas (2023). Subversion: The Strategic Weaponization of Narratives. Georgetown University Press.
it has maintained connections with anti-EU, ultranationalist radical elements of ... Lega Nord
- ^ "Beautiful Harmony: Political Project Behind Japan's New Era Name – Analysis". eurasia review. 16 July 2019.
The shifting dynamics around the new era name (gengō 元号) offers an opportunity to understand how the domestic politics of the LDP's project of ultranationalism is shaping a new Japan and a new form of nationalism.
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The overturning of the cab driver's 1998 sentiment in Akamatsu's 2007 piece had its political correlative in the victory of the ultranationalist wing of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) when Abe Shinzō became Japan's prime minister in ...
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In Japan, populist and extreme right-wing nationalism has found a home within the political establishment.
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... a gradual drift towards more nationalistic attitudes to education and politics in general in contemporary Japanese society may party be explained by the effect of ultranationalist politicians in the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).
- ^ Masanori Nakamura, ed. (2016). The Japanese Monarchy: Ambassador Joseph Grew and the Making of the "Symbol Emperor System," 1931-1991. M.E. Sharpe. p. 1992. ISBN 9781563241093.
On July 31, a group of ultranationalist LDP Diet men, alarmed by Nakasone's diplomacy of "submission to foreign pressure" on issues like textbook revision and the Yasukuni Shrine problem, formed the "Association of Those Concerned ...
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PiS adopted LPR's identity politics both regarding minorities and the ultranationalist interpretation of Polish history and continued its ideological trajectory
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In Poland, the ultranationalist Law and Justice Party (PiS) has significantly increased its vote share
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Putinism is not consistent as an ideology and political system. Public political attitudes have changed according to the circumstances. From a kind of cautious system to an open society, Putinism has moved significantly in the direction of the authoritarian system. His political party United Russia started as the conservative party of the former communists has moved towards ultranationalist and neo-imperialist ideology (Van Herpen 2013: 7). Van Harpen even qualifies Putinism as an unstable system of a slight variant of fascism-fascism lite. According to him, this system combines elements of proto-fascism, fascism and post-fascism, with a nucleus of ultra-nationalism, militarism and neo-imperialism (Van Herpen 2013: 8).
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In particular , Putin's efforts are attributed to the burgeoning growth of Russian ultranationalist sociopolitical organizations, such as United Russia ( Yedinaya Rossiya ) and Ours ( Nashi , or Youth Movement - Ours ! ).
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It emphasized internal discipline, paramilitary organization and ultranationalist ideals
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Chiang Kai - Shek shook off the Soviet supervision and transmuted the Kuomintang into an ultranationalist movement
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Moreover, the rise of fascism in interwar Europe was an inspirational source for variety of ultranationalist movements and parties that emerged in the Middle East and Africa. Take the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), founded in 1932 by Antun Sa'adih, who had a specific mission: to lead the Lebanese people to their destiny.
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Ultra-nationalist parties VMRO and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria, along with populists Volya, have agreed to stand together in Bulgaria's July 11, 2021 parliamentary elections under the name "Bulgarian Patriots", the parties announced on May 20.
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The chief political party of the ultranationalist right was the DNVP
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...and far right-wing newspapers such as Alpha Ena, Eleytheros Kosmos, Eleytheri Ora and Stohos (the mouthpiece of ultra-nationalist group Chrysi Avgi).
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the ultranationalist Hindu Mahasabha revivalist movement
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Mussolini later formed the far-right ultra-nationalist Fascist Party
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.2 All existing political parties "voluntarily" dissolved themselves, replaced by a single authorized political body, the ultranationalist Imperial Rule Assistance Association.
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The União Nacional was initially founded as a "patriotic league," tasked with buttressing support for the military regime. Upon assuming power in 1932, Salazar reengineered the party to his ideological and political image to stand on the twin pillars of ultranationalism and corporativism
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Finally, at the extreme right is the reorganized Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) under Nicanor Yniguez, which remains loyal to Marcos.
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The CDR is an ultranationalist Hutu party
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Slovak National Party: led by Jan Slota. Extreme nationalist
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...Meciar established his 1994 coalition government with the extreme-nacionalist Slovak National Party (SNS), led by Ján Slota, mayor of Zilina...
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RSS was itself an ultra-nationalist organization
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Prabowo has accepted support from and declared his willingness to work with such organizations as the (notorious) radical Islamic group Front Pembela Islam (Defenders of Islam Front) and the ultra-nationalist Pemuda Pancasila
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An ultra-nationalist Israeli group has published a video accusing the heads of four of Israel's leading human rights organisations of being foreign agents funded by Europe and supporting Palestinians "involved in terrorism". The widely-viewed 68-second video, made by radical Zionist group Im Tirtzu
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an ultra-nationalist Jewish group called Lehava has been organising patrols aimed at stopping Jewish Israelis from even talking to Arabs.
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Abe also rewarded right-wing politicians who are close to him — so-called 'ideological friends' who are being increasingly pushed to the forefront of his administration — such as LDP Executive Acting Secretary-General Koichi Hagiuda who was appointed Education Minister. As a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference), which seeks to promote patriotic education, he can be considered 'reliable' as the government's policy leader on national education.
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Eto is serving in his first cabinet position and is a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi organisation, whose aims are to revise the "national consciousness" surrounding the prosecution of Japan's war criminals and to change the nation's pacifist constitution implemented after the war. The group also promotes "patriotic education".
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... and foreign policy are rightwing revisionists organized in groups such as the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi ...
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... and many don't speak Korean or have ties to Korea. Even so, ultranationalist groups like Zaitokukai have singled them out and used Japan's very liberal protection of speech to harass, intimidate and silence Zainichi with noisy street protests and attacks online, often anonymously.
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The longtime chairman of the ultranationalist group Zaitokukai has announced he will step down and even give up his membership in the group, saying the move will eventually bolster the organization's influence.
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Perkasa (an all Malay ultranationalist group) ready to crusade against ungrateful Christians,
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- ^ Combs, Cynthia (2022). Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century. Taylor & Francis.
The Proud Boys are an ultranationalist organization active in the United States
- ^ "China's Pursuit of a New World Media Order" (PDF). Reporters Without Borders. 2018-11-29. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
Global Times is an ultra-nationalist tabloid established by People's Daily in 1993 to comment on international news.