Waldo R. Tobler
Waldo Rudolph Tobler | |
---|---|
Born | Portland, Oregon, USA | November 16, 1930
Died | February 20, 2018 | (aged 87)
Education | University of Washington |
Scientific career | |
Institutions | University of Michigan University of California, Santa Barbara |
Doctoral students | Sandra Arlinghaus |
Waldo Rudolph Tobler (November 16, 1930 – February 20, 2018) was an American-Swiss geographer and cartographer.[1][2][3] Tobler is regarded as one of the most influential geographers and cartographers of the late 20th century and early 21st century.[2][4][5][6] He is most well known for coining what has come to be referred to as Tobler's first law of geography.[7][8][9][10] He also coined what has come to be referred to as Tobler's second law of geography.[11][12][13][14]
Tobler's career had a major impact on the development of quantitative geography, and his research spanned and influenced the study of any discipline investigating geographic phenomena.[15][16] He established the discipline of analytical cartography, contributed early to Geographic information systems (GIS), and helped lay the groundwork for geographic information science (GIScience) as a discipline.[2][6][17] He had significant contributions to computer cartography and was one of the first geographers to explore using computers in geography.[2] In cartography, he contributed to the literature on map projections, choropleth maps, flow maps, cartograms, animated mapping.[17][18][19] His work with analytical cartography included contributions to the mathematical modeling of geographic phenomena, such as human movement in the creation of Tobler's hiking function.[17][18][20] Tobler's work has been described as ahead of its time, and many of his ideas are still unable to be fully implemented due to limitations of technology.[4]
Tobler held the positions of professor of geography and professor of statistics at University of California, Santa Barbara and was an active Professor Emeritus at the Department of Geography until his death.[21]
Early life
[edit]Tobler was born in Portland, Oregon, in 1930 to parents Verner Tobler and Hanny Urech Tobler.[22][23] His father was a Swiss consular employee, and this granted Waldo Tobler both Swiss and United States citizenship.[1][22][24][25] His father's career resulted in moves to Seattle when Waldo Tobler was young, and later to Washington, D.C., when World War II started.[17][23] During World War II, his father's duties included reporting on the treatment of German Prisoners of War held in the United States.[22] Tobler attended junior high school in Chevy Chase, Maryland, while his father was stationed in Washington, D.C.[22]
In May 1945, after the Allied victory in Europe, the family returned to Europe by boat from Boston, Massachusetts to Le Havre France, then by train to Paris, and finally to his parents' native Switzerland.[22] His father was then stationed in Budapest, and Tobler attended boarding school for a year in Zurich, where he learned German, then public high school in St. Gall, and Bern.[22][23] Geographers Pradyumna Prasad Karan and Cotton Mather speculated that this frequent moving in early life may have influenced Tobler's later career choices and passion for geography.[1] Tobler later stated that these early travels may have contributed to a career in geography.[22]
Military service
[edit]When Tobler turned 18 in 1948, Switzerland wanted to draft him into the Swiss Army.[22] To avoid the Swiss draft, Tobler traveled to France and joined the United States Army in 1948.[22][17][23][26] A native speaker of English, Swiss German, and French, the military trained him to speak Russian to serve as an interpreter for the Counterintelligence Corps.[23] During his time in the military, he served as both an intelligence analyst and an interpreter in Europe (mostly in Austria) during the Korean War, and participated in interviewing Austrian Prisoners of War who had been released from the Soviet Union.[1][17][27] Tobler described this activity as "little more than industrial espionage."[22] He left the military in 1952 and used his G.I. Bill to attend university.[26]
Education and field
[edit]After leaving the military, Tobler attended classes at University of British Columbia in Vancouver Canada.[1][26] Here, Tobler was introduced to Canadian Geographer John Ross Mackay, who Tobler convinced to allow him to take advanced cartography classes as a Freshman.[1][15] After two years at the University of British Columbia, Tobler transferred to the University of Washington in Seattle, from which he received his B.A. (1955), M.A. (1957), and Ph.D. (1961), all in geography.[1][21] Tobler returned for his Ph.D. only after receiving a National Science Foundation fellowship to fund his studies.[22]
At the Department of Geography, University of Washington, Tobler participated in the quantitative revolution of the late 1950s, working with geography professors Edward Ullman and William Garrison.[15][28] Here, he became one of many of Garrison's grad students (dubbed the "space cadets") who would go on to be highly influential geographers.[25][29][30] His master's thesis is titled "An Empirical Evaluation of Some Aspects of Hypsometric Colors", and his dissertation "Map Transformations of Geographic Space."[31]
Career and academic organizations
[edit]Student jobs
[edit]While the GI Bill funded much of Tobler's undergraduate courses, he took on several jobs during this time. As an undergraduate student, Tobler was offered positions on research expeditions to the Arctic.[22] However, he turned down this position for a higher-paying job as a mucker in an underground gold mine in British Columbia. Tobler also worked parking cars part-time in Seatle and as a fire lookout in Seattle's Cedar River watershed. Tobler indicated that his choice to work in these positions rather than participate in research expeditions influenced his later specialization in geography. If he had taken the research position, he likely would have been a physical geographer.[22]
After graduating with his B.S. in geography, Tobler was offered a position as a cartographic assistant at the University of Washington, which enabled him to pursue his master's degree.[22]
System Development Corporation
[edit]In 1957, after obtaining his master's degree, Tobler began work for the System Development Corporation (SDC), a spinoff of the RAND Corporation, in Santa Monica, California.[22][17][32][33] Here, Tobler worked on developing the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system, a system that combined both RADAR and computers to detect Soviet bomber aircraft, coordinate interceptor aircraft, and ultimately prevent a Soviet nuclear first strike.[22][33] Tobler's job entailed creating plastic overlay maps for Radar screens to train RADAR operators during exercises.[22][17] These maps were created manually but printed using computers such as the IBM 704.[33] With these, SDC experimented with duplication and generating maps using computers directly. Tobler's experience here influenced his later academic publications and research on computer and analytical cartography.[32][33]
In 1958, the American Association of Geographer's annual meeting was held in Los Angeles, California.[34][35] At this meeting, Tobler arranged a tour of the computer facilities that SDC operated.[22][Note 1] Tobler stated this was his first experience with the AAG.[22]
Pierce County planning commission
[edit]After the SDC, Tobler worked for two years for the Pierce County planning commission.[22][36] During this time, he worked to create land-use maps by manually shading with colored pencils.[22] He left this position when after getting an NSF fellowship and returned to school to get his Ph.D.
University of Michigan
[edit]After earning his Ph.D. in 1961, Tobler became an Assistant Professor at the University of Michigan.[1][15][37] While at the University of Michigan, Tobler was a member of the Michigan Inter-University Community of Mathematical Geographers (MICMOG), organized by geographer William Bunge, which brought together faculty from both the University of Michigan and Michigan State University.[1][38] These meetings sought to discuss topics related to quantitative geography, and organized joint seminars, which resulted in several discussion papers.[1][39] At the MICMOG meetings, Tobler was given the nickname "Ptobler," as he was "the greatest cartographer since Ptolemy."[38][25] The MICMOG seminars and publications eventually led to the creation of the journal Geographcial Analysis.[1] Tobler remained at the University of Michigan until 1977.[37]
University of California, Santa Barbara
[edit]In 1977, Tobler then moved to the University of California, Santa Barbara 1977, to be closer to the West Coast, where he grew up.[1][15][40] Here, he continued his research in employing computers to cartography, flow, and other applications.[1] At UC Santa Barbara, he worked with geographers Reginald Golledge and Michael Frank Goodchild.[15] Until his retirement, he held the positions of Professor of Geography and Professor of Statistics at the University of California, Santa Barbara.[21] He was an active Professor Emeritus here until his death.[21]
Other organizations
[edit]Tobler was one of the principal investigators and a senior scientist in the National Science Foundation-sponsored National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis.[5][21] Tobler served on the National Research Council the Board on Earth Sciences.[27] He has been on the editorial board of several journals, including The American Cartographer, Journal of Regional Science, Geographical Analysis, and the International Journal of Geographical Information Systems. He was a charter member of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association, a council member of the Regional Science Association, member and chairman of the Mathematical Social Science Board, and served as the United States delegate to the International Geographical Union Commission on Geographical Data Processing and Sensing.[27] Until his retirement, he was a member of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain.[27]
Research and publications
[edit]While Tobler may have fewer publications than some contemporary geographers, his publications covered a broad range of topics and are considered of exceptional quality.[25] His career in geography profoundly impacted the discipline, and he is perhaps the most influential geographer of the past century.[5] The Library of Congress maintains some of Tobler's early work in "The Waldo Tobler Collection" within the broader "Geographic Information Systems (GIS) & Geospatial Resources," and the UC Santa Barbra Library maintains a collection of his work in "The Waldo Tobler Academic Archives."[5][41]
Cartography
[edit]Waldo Tobler described himself as a "geographical cartographer," and his research interests reflect this.[3] He published the first paper on using computers for making maps, established the discipline of analytical cartography, and contributed to the literature around thematic maps.[1][42][3] His early work, including his dissertation, involved map projections, which he continued to work on throughout his life.[1] Tobler's time working at SDC on the SAGE system influenced his development of both computer and analytical cartography, and it is possible much of his work was kept confidential for some time due to military applications.[33][43] Geographer Mark Monmonier described Tobler as "arguably the twentieth century's most innovative cartographer."[44]
Map projections
[edit]One of Tobler's largest interests, especially early in his career, was map projections, with much of his dissertation focusing on them.[1] He is the inventor of novel and unusual map projections, including the family of Tobler hyperelliptical projections and the first derivation of the partial differential equations for area cartograms.[1][45] He also invented a method for smooth two-dimensional mass-preserving areal data redistribution.
In 1972, Tobler translated and published Johann Heinrich Lambert's 1772 "Notes and comments on the Composition of Terrestrial and Celestial Maps."[1][17] Tobler served as the third author of a book by Qihe Yang and John P. Snyder titled "Map Projection Transformation: Principles and Applications." This book was based on substantial translations by first author Qihe Yang from his work originally published in Chinese, and Tobler stepped in to help revise and assemble the book after Snyder died.[46]
Computer cartography
[edit]Using his time and experience on the SAGE system, Tobler built upon the concepts and published his work in academic journals.[33] Computer cartography originates as a concept from a paper written by Waldo Tobler as a graduate student in 1959, titled "Automation and Cartography".[41][47][48][49] This paper's concepts, such as the "Map in-Map out" system (MIMO), was extremely influential in early Geographic Information Systems.[49][50] Tobler's research in developing applications for computer cartography is described by Mark Monmonier as "a pivotal place in map history."[36]
Analytical cartography
[edit]Tobler's research emphasized mathematical modeling and graphic interpretations in geography through cartography. In 1976, he published a paper titled "Analytical Cartography," which pioneered the discipline of analytical cartography.[47][51][52] Analytical cartography is the foundation for many of the developments in Geographic information systems, and shapes how spatial analysis and cartography are taught today.[47][51] Keith C. Clarke defined Analytical cartography as "the theoretical and mathematical background behind cartography and the rules cartographers employed in the mapping process."[47][51] Analytical cartography is described as the leading paradigm in cartography and is likely Tobler's most enduring contribution to the discipline.[42][3][53][52]
Animated mapping
[edit]Tobler was among the first to create a true animated map, using animation to show change over time, in his famous 1970 paper, "A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region."[3][15] While this paper is most often cited as the first time the first law of geography was invoked, the focus of the paper was on animation to show change over time, with the first law an "aside" to this.[3]
Choropleth
[edit]Tobler formally introduced the unclassified color scheme for choropleth maps in 1973.[54][55][56] Tobler argued that these maps would increase data density, and avoided many of the issues with Data binning and Statistical classification. There has been significant debate around the best approach to solve this issue with choropleth maps, and most choropleth maps today continue to make use of class breaks.[55][54][56][57] Other approaches to creating classes in choropleth maps include using the Jenks natural breaks optimization, quantile, or equal class intervals.[58][59][60]
Cartograms
[edit]Tobler's interest in cartograms stemmed from his interest in map projections.[1][17][4] A chapter of his dissertation was developed for their creation, later adapted and published in the Geographical Review.[1][61] Tobler was among the first to use computers to create cartogram maps, with the rubber sheet method being the first method he proposed for their creation.[4] This method uses rubbersheeting to transform the map coordinates based on the values of interest.[4] He later proposed the "Pseudo-Cartogram" method, which approximates the pycnomirastic solution.[62] Tobler's methods for creating cartograms are still employed, however they have some practical problems in implementation that can sometimes ruin topology.[63] Tobler's methods serve as the basis for many other methods to create them.[1]
Flow maps
[edit]Tobler was also concerned with representing flow (due to its involvement with movement as a mechanism of geographic change), and considered them critical to understanding geography.[1] Combining this interest in movement with his knowledge of cartography, Tobler worked on incorporating flow maps to the problem.[64] While crude, the result of this research was that Tobler was the first to develop a software approach to creating flow maps in 1987.[65][64][66] The first demonstration of this technology by Tobler involved mapping the flow of money through the US Federal Reserve to the various US states.[64] In 2003, Tobler released a freeware, Microsoft Windows-based version of his flow representation software Flow Mapper.[67] Tobler's flow mapper software, and similar programs, continue to be built upon and applied to new topics.[64][66]
Spatial interpolation and isorhythmic mapping
[edit]Spatial interpolation, which involves estimating values for a spatial surface from sample locations, is a major research focus and application in spatial analysis.[16] Tobler published several studies on different approaches to spatial interpolation, including an extension of bilinear weighted interpolation and other models.[16]
Tobler's pycnophylactic approach to interpolation had early applications to interpolation of surfaces used in isarithmic mapping on computers.[57] Tobler's approach was more straightforward then other methods of the time, and is more appropriate for samples collected at enumeration units like census tracts.[57]
Spatial Resolution
[edit]According to Tobler, a dictionary definition of resolution is "the capability of making distinguishable the individual parts of an object". In terms of digital raster data, which consists of pixels, spatial resolution (also referred to as ground sample distance GSD) refers to the size of one pixel on the ground.[68]
With regard to spatial resolution Tobler has formulated the following rule of thumb: “The usefulness of a GIS is constrained by its spatial resolution. The size of the smallest detectable feature is twice that of the resolution. The rule is: divide the denominator of the map scale by 1,000 to get the detectable size in meters. The resolution is one half of this amount.”[68]
The spatial precision of a database is expressed by a distance and a scale, which are mathematically related by this rule of thumb about the relation between map scale and image resolution. This rule is derived from the equivalent of 0.5 mm on a map, the smallest physical mark that a cartographer can make:
- Map Scale = Raster resolution (in meters) * 2 * 1,000
or
- Raster resolution (in meters) = Map Scale /(2 * 1,000)
By example, if the image resolution is 5m only the map scale should not be larger than 1:10,000. If you want to work at a scale of 1:2,000 the image resolution should be at least 1m.
Laws of Geography
[edit]In a 1970 paper in the journal Economic Geography where he discussed creating a computer movie of Detroit, Tobler stated, "I invoke the first law of geography: everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things".[71][18] This text following the colon in his statement, which was not the main focus of the paper, is now known as "Tobler's First Law of Geography," and is probably what Tobler is most famous for.[7][8][9][10] The first law of geography is widely cited and is relevant today, particularly within the sub-discipline of geographic information science.[72][73][74][75] The Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge "Model Curricula" in particular emphasizes the importance of the first law in the section on "Metrical relationships: distance and direction."[65] It is considered the theoretical basis of many statistics in spatial analysis, including those involved in cluster analysis and spatial autocorrelation (such as Moran's I).[69][70][76][77] Spatial autocorrelation, and Tobler's 1970 paper, are considered central to modern approaches in technical geography.[78] Tobler's first law is included in the children's book "ABCs of Geography" under the letter "T" for "Tobler."[79][80]
In a 1999 paper titled "Linear pycnophylactic reallocation comment on a paper by D. Martin," Tobler stated "Philosophically, the phenomenon external to an area of interest affects what goes on in the inside; a sufficiently common occurrence as to warrant being called the second law of geography."[12] In his 2004 paper "On the First law of Geography: A reply," he discussed this concept again.[11][13][14] This has come to be known as Tobler's second law of geography.[13][14] In Tobler's 2004 paper, he discussed other potential candidates for laws of geography, including one proposed by Giuseppe Arbia, R. Benedetti, and G. Espa in a 1996 paper that stated "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."[11][81] This has come to be known as Arbia's law of geography.[82]
The laws of geography, particularly Tobler's first law of geography, have been debated heavily in literature, with their status as scientific laws questioned, changes and amendments proposed, exceptions noted, and corresponding defenses by proponents of the laws.[10][83][84][85][86] Tobler weighed in on this debate surrounding his law, and others, in a 2004 article titled "On the First law of Geography: A reply."[11]
The Global Demography Project
[edit]The Global Demography Project was conducted by the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis to map the human population in a series of 5 by 5 minute, or roughly one-kilometer, grids for most of the Earth.[3][87] While this project had serious limitations, largely due to data limitations, it was the finest scale population set produced to that point. The project was later supported by the Columbia University’s Center for International Earth Science Information Network.[3]
Tobler's hiking function
[edit]Tobler was an avid hiker, and combined this with his interest flow and movement to generate "Tobler's hiking function," also known as "Tobler’s walking rule."[4][88][89] In this research, Tobler used himself as a subject, and was published the results in a 1993 paper.[88] With this function, he sought to model and predict an average hiker walking speed on various slopes.[88] Researchers have suggested this function has applications in various fields, including self-driving cars, route decisions, and wayfinding apps.[88]
Archeological modeling
[edit]While at UC Santa Barbra in 1971, Tobler published models to predict the location of archaeological sites.[15][90] Using the frequency of locations being noted in Cuneiform tablets discussing commercial transactions, he estimated the distance between the towns in Babylonia using a reverse gravity model.[15][90] Many of these predictions were for unknown locations and were proven accurate for at least three known towns; however, more excavation is needed to confirm the remainder of his predictions.[15][90] These ideas serve as the basis for numerous similar computer simulations to model ancient human migration, such as the settlement of Polynesia.[90]
Awards and honors
[edit]The University of Zurich, Switzerland, awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1988.[1][6]
The Austrian Academy of Sciences created the Waldo Tobler Awards, which include the Waldo Tobler GIScience Prize and the Young Researcher Award in Geographic Information Science, to recognize Tobler's contributions to geographic research.[5][91] The awards seek to "encourage scientific advancement in the disciplines of Geoinformatics and/or Geographic Information Science."[92] The Waldo Tobler GIScience Prize is issued to individuals who have "exhibited outstanding and sustained contributions to the discipline worthy of inspiring young scientists in Geoinformatics or Geographic Information Science, and has accomplished significant advances in these fields."[92] It has been issued since to David Mark (2016), Thomas Poiker (2017), Helena Mitasova (2018), Michael Batty (2019), Luc Anselin (2022), and Sara Irina Fabrikant (2023).[93] The Young Researcher Award in Geographic Information Science is awarded to "individuals, typically under the age of 35, acknowledging publications enhancing the body of Geoinformatics or GIScience literature."[94] It has since been issued to Filip Biljecki (2015), Xingjian Liu (2016), Song Gao (2016), Chen Min (2017), Pablo Cabrera Barona (2017), Auriol Degbelo (2018), Wei Luo (2018), Franz-Benjamin Mocnik (2019), Yingjie Hu (2019), Laura Knoth (2020),Yuhao Kang (2023 ), and Weiming Huang (2022).[93]
The American Association of Geographers Geographic Information Science and Systems Specialty Group (AAG GISS) and the publication Transactions in GIS hosts an annual session at the AAG conference titled "The Waldo Tobler Distinguished Lecture in GIScience."[42][95] This session honors the legacy of Waldo Tobler by featuring a leading researcher in GIScience.[42] The selected speakers are given the Tobler Lecture Award.[42]
Mark Monmonier noted that Tobler "is one of a small handful of then-living persons accorded one of the 52 biographical entries in the twentieth-century volume of the History of Cartography."[36]
Other awards and honors Tobler received throughout his life include:
- Member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
- Honorary Fellow, American Geographical Society (1965)[96]
- Osborn Maitland Miller Medal, American Geographical Society 1989[96][97]
- Meritorious Contributor Medallion, Association of American Geographers, 1971[98]
- Andrew McNally Award, 1986[5]
- ESRI Lifetime Achievement Award, 1999.[5][99]
- AAG Microcomputer Specialty Award, 1993.[5]
- UCGIS Honorary Fellow, 2012[6]
- Archaeological Institute of America Pomerance Award for Scientific Contributions to Archaeology, 2014[49]
- GIS Hall of Fame Inductee, URISA (Urban and Regional Information Systems Association), 2016.[100]
Memorials
[edit]Rachel Tobler (Waldo Tobler's widow) and the Geography department at UC Santa Barbra established the "Waldo Tobler Memorial Lecture Fund" in honor of Waldo Tobler.[5][101] The fund helps "to support open lectures in the fields of demography, mapping and cartography, and geographic information science." Rachel Tobler donated Waldo Tobler's collection of papers and research materials to the UCSB Library, which now hosts them as "The Waldo Tobler Academic Archives".[5] On March 6, 2018, UCSB lowered their flag to honor Tobler after his death.[27]
The journal Cartography and Geographic Information Science honored Tobler with both an obituary authored by Keith C. Clarke and a graphic composite on the cover featuring themes of his work.[17][102] The journal Geographical Analysis dedicated a special issue titled "In honor of Waldo Tobler," edited by Alan T. Murray and Keith C. Clarke, which contained several articles discussing his research, including discussions and overviews of Tobler's contributions to the journal.[16][103] Two of the International Cartographic Association journals, The Cartographic Journal and the International Journal of Cartography, honored Tobler with obituary articles.[4][52] Geographer Mark Monmonier published an obituary for Waldo Tobler in the journal Imago Mundi.[36] The journals Transactions in GIS and Annals of GIS both published obituary articles in tribute to Tobler as well.[25][104] The American Association of Geographers published a memorial for him on their website.[21]
See also
[edit]- Cynthia Brewer – American geographer
- Duane Marble – American geographer
- Geographers on Film – Archival series of interviews with geographers
- George F. Jenks – American geographer and cartographer
- Mei-Po Kwan – Geographer
- Michael Dacey – American geographer and spatial statistician
- Roger Tomlinson – English-Canadian geographer
- Stewart Fotheringham – British-American geographer
- Qualitative geography – Subfield of geographic methods
- Tobler (name) – family name
Notes
[edit]- ^ In Tobler's Autobiography, he indicates that the AAG annual meeting occurred in the Spring. However, the schedule published in The Professional Geographer has the 1958 conference in the week of August 17. The 1958 conference schedule does not mention a trip to SDC facilities but does mention a field trip to the "Los Angeles Urban-Industrial Area."
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Karan, P.P.; Mather, Cotton (2000). Leaders in American Geography Volume II: Research. New Mexico Geographical Society. pp. 234–239. ISBN 0-9643841-1-6. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d Getis, Arthur (2020). "Waldo Tobler (1931–2018): Analytical Cartographer and Regional Scientist". In Batey, Peter; Plane, David (eds.). Great Minds in Regional Science. Footprints of Regional Science. Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 185–198. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46157-7_12. ISBN 978-3-030-46157-7. S2CID 226747451. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Clarke, Keith C. (2015). "Tobler, Waldo R(udolph).". In Monmonier, Mark (ed.). The History of Cartography, Volume 6: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226152127. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g Dorling, Danny; Hennig, Benjamin (2018). "Waldo Tobler: Remembering a genius". The Cartographic Journal. 55 (3): 303–304. Bibcode:2018CartJ..55..303D. doi:10.1080/00087041.2018.1507181. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Preserving Groundbreaking Research in Geography, Geoinformatics and Geographic Information Science". The Waldo Tobler Academic Archives. UC Santa Barbra Library. 18 October 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d "Waldo R. Tobler". University Consortium for Geographic Information Science. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
- ^ a b Sui, Daniel Z. (2004). "Tobler's First Law of Geography: A Big Idea for a Small World?". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 269–277. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402003.x. JSTOR 3693983. S2CID 143904098. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b Barnes, Trevor J. (2004). "A Paper Related to Everything but More Related to Local Things". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 278–283. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402004.x. JSTOR 3693984. S2CID 129913278. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b Phillips, Jonathan D. (2004). "Doing Justice to the Law". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 290–293. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402006.x. JSTOR 3693986. S2CID 140723108. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Goodchild, Michael (2004). "The Validity and Usefulness of Laws in Geographic Information Science and Geography". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 300–303. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402008.x. S2CID 17912938.
- ^ a b c d Tobler, Waldo (2004). "On the First Law of Geography: A Reply". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 304–310. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x. S2CID 33201684. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ a b Tobler, Waldo (1999). "Linear pycnophylactic reallocation comment on a paper by D. Martin". International Journal of Geographical Information Science. 13 (1): 85–90. Bibcode:1999IJGIS..13...85T. doi:10.1080/136588199241472.
- ^ a b c McClain, Bonny P (3 October 2023). Geospatial Analysis with SQL. Packt Publishing. ISBN 9781804616468. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Thompson, Alexandra (11 January 2024). "Geeking Out on Geography: Mapping the Effects of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act". Resource Magazine. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Flowerdew, Robin (2011). "Waldo Tobler". In Hubbard, Phil; Kitchin, Rob (eds.). Key Thinkers on Space and Place (2 ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd. pp. 421–425. ISBN 978-1-84920-101-8. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d Murray, Alan T.; Xu, Jing; Baik, Jiwon; Burtner, Susan; Cho, Seonga; Noi, Evgeny; Pludow, B. Amelia; Zhou, Enbo (2020). "Overview of Contributions in Geographical Analysis: Waldo Tobler". Geographical Analysis. 52 (4): 480–493. Bibcode:2020GeoAn..52..480M. doi:10.1111/gean.12257. S2CID 224848171. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Clarke, Keith C. (2018-07-04). "Waldo R. Tobler (1930–2018)". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 45 (4): 287–288. Bibcode:2018CGISc..45..287C. doi:10.1080/15230406.2018.1447399. ISSN 1523-0406. S2CID 133763290.
- ^ a b c Tobler W. R. (1970) "A Computer Movie Simulating Urban Growth in the Detroit Region", Economic Geography, 46(Supplement): 234–240
- ^ Tobler, Waldo (1973). "Choropleth Maps Without Class Intervals?". Geographical Analysis. 5 (3): 262–265. Bibcode:1973GeoAn...5..262T. doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1973.tb01012.x.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo (February 1993). "Three presentations on geographical analysis and modeling: Non-isotropic geographic modeling speculations on the geometry of geography global spatial analysis" (PDF). Technical Report. 93 (1). National center for geographic information and analysis. Retrieved 21 March 2013. Available also in HTML format.
- ^ a b c d e f "Waldo Tobler (1930–2018)". American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Tobler, Waldo (2002). "Ma Vie". In Gould, Peter; Pitts, Forrest R. (eds.). Geographical Voices: Fourteen Autobiographical Essays (1 ed.). Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. pp. 293–322. ISBN 0-8156-2940-0. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d e Thoits, Sandy (5 March 2018). "Waldo R. Tobler of Santa Barbara, 1930–2018". Noozhawk. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ Foreign Consular Offices in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1932. p. 47.
- ^ a b c d e Unwin, David (26 March 2019). "Waldo Tobler: An appreciation of the contributions made to geographic information science". Transactions in GIS. 23 (2): 387–393. Bibcode:2019TrGIS..23..387U. doi:10.1111/tgis.12529. S2CID 108347627.
- ^ a b c "Geographers on Film Interview With Waldo Tobler". Library of Congress. Association of American Geographers. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e Yang, Henry T. "Sad News – Professor Emeritus Waldo Tobler". Chancellor's Messages. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ Wilson, Matthew W. (2015). "Celebrating the Advent of Digital Mapping". No. Winter. ESRI. ARCNEWS. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ "William Garrison 1925 – 2015". Memorials. American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ Getis, Arthur (16 July 2008). "A History of the Concept of Spatial Autocorrelation: A Geographer's Perspective". Geographical Analysis. 40 (3): 297–309. Bibcode:2008GeoAn..40..297G. doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00727.x.
- ^ "Theses & Dissertations Archive". DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY. University of Washington. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ a b Barns, Trevor J.; Farish, Matthew (2006). "Between Regions: Science, Militarism, and American Geography from World War to Cold War". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 96 (4): 807–826. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00516.x. JSTOR 4124459. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f Barnes, Trevor J. (2007). "Geography's underworld: The military–industrial complex, mathematical modeling and the quantitative revolution". Geoforum. 39: 3–16. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2007.09.006.
- ^ Kostanick, Huey Louis (1958). "Aag 1958 Los Angeles Meetings". The Professional Geographer. 10 (3): 16. doi:10.1111/j.0033-0124.1958.103_16.x. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ "Preliminary Schedule of Program". The Professional Geographer. 10 (3): 17–27. 1958. doi:10.1111/j.0033-0124.1958.103_17.x. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d Monmonier, Mark (2019). "Waldo R. Tobler (1930–2018)". Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography. 71 (1): 87–88. doi:10.1080/03085694.2019.1529916. JSTOR 48547969. S2CID 134145871. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
- ^ a b "WALDO R. TOBLER". Faculty History Project. University of Michigan. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
- ^ a b Bunge, William (2001). "Classics in human geography revisited: Author's response: geography the innocent science – completed geography awaiting its birth in print". Progress in Human Geography. 25 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1191/030913201673714256. S2CID 143540890. ProQuest 230704607. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ Golledge, Reginald G. (1 March 1979). "The Development of Geographical Analysis". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 69 (1): 151–154. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01244.x. JSTOR 2569562. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ "Waldo Tobler". www.geog.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-28.
- ^ a b "Geographic Information Systems (GIS) & Geospatial Resources". Library of Congress. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d e "The Waldo Tobler Distinguished Lecture in GIScience". AAG Geographic Information Science and Systems Specialty Group. American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo (1976). "Analytical Cartography". The American Cartographer. 3 (1): 21–31. doi:10.1559/152304076784080230. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
- ^ Monmonier, Mark (2016). Adventures in Academic Cartography: A Memoir. Bar Scale Press. ISBN 978-0692332252.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo (1973). "The hyperelliptical and other new pseudocylindrical equal area map projections". Journal of Geophysical Research. 78 (11): 1753–1759. Bibcode:1973JGR....78.1753T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.495.6424. doi:10.1029/JB078i011p01753.
- ^ Yang, Qihe; Snyder, John P.; Tobler, Waldo (2000). Map Projection Transformation: Principles and Applications. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-748-40667-0.
- ^ a b c d Clarke, Keith C. (1990). Analytical and Computer Cartography. Prentice-Hall inc. ISBN 0-13-033481-2. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo (1959). "Automation and Cartography". Geographical Review. 49 (4): 526–534. Bibcode:1959GeoRv..49..526T. doi:10.2307/212211. JSTOR 212211. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ a b c "The 115th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America: Waldo Tobler". American Journal of Archaeology. 118: 359–365. 2014. doi:10.3764/aja.118.2.0359. JSTOR 10.3764/aja.118.2.0359. S2CID 245264751. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ DeMers, Michael N. "GIS". Geography & Travel. Britannica. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Clarke, Keith C.; Cloud, John G. (2000). "On the Origins of Analytical Cartography". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 27 (3): 195–204. Bibcode:2000CGISc..27..195C. doi:10.1559/152304000783547821. S2CID 7501501. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
- ^ a b c McMaster, Robert B. (2018). "Waldo Tobler (1930–2018): The originator of analytical cartography". International Journal of Cartography. 4 (2): 126–128. doi:10.1080/23729333.2018.1475536.
- ^ Mcmaster, Robert; Mcmaster, Susanna (2002). "A history of twentieth-century American academic cartography". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 29 (3): 305–321. doi:10.1559/152304002782008486. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
- ^ a b Peterson, Michael P. (1979). "An Evaluation of Unclassed Crossed-Line Choropleth Mapping". The American Cartographer. 6 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1559/152304079784022736. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ a b Dobson, Michael W. (October 1973). "Choropleth Maps without Class Intervals? A Comment". Geographical Analysis. 5 (4): 358–360. Bibcode:1973GeoAn...5..358D. doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1973.tb00498.x.
- ^ a b Dobson, Michael W.; Peterson, Michael P. (1980). "Unclassed Choropleth Maps: A Comment, A Reply". The American Cartographer. 7 (1): 78–81. doi:10.1559/152304080784522928.
- ^ a b c Slocum, Terry A.; Kessler, Fritz C. (2015). "Thematic Mapping". In Monmonier, Mark (ed.). The History of Cartography, Volume 6: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226152127. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
- ^ McMaster, Robert (1997). "In Memoriam: George F. Jenks (1916–1996)". Cartography and Geographic Information Systems. 24 (1): 56–59. doi:10.1559/152304097782438764.
- ^ "Jenks natural breaks classification method". CDC National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
- ^ "Data classification methods". ESRI. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo R. (2004). "Thirty Five Years of Computer Cartograms". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (1): 58–73. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09401004.x. S2CID 30147641. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Tobler, Waldo R. (1986). "Pseudo-Cartograms". Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 13 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1559/152304086783900194. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Gastner, Michael T.; Newman, M. E. J. (2004). "Diffusion-based method for producing density-equalizing maps". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (20): 7499–7504. arXiv:physics/0401102. doi:10.1073/pnas.0400280101. PMC 419634. PMID 15136719.
- ^ a b c d Rey, Sergio; Han, Su Yeon; Kang, Wei; Knaap, Elijah; Cortes, Renan Xavier (2020). "A Visual Analytics System for Space–Time Dynamics of Regional Income Distributions Utilizing Animated Flow Maps and Rank-based Markov Chains". Geographical Analysis. 52 (4): 537–557. doi:10.1111/gean.12239. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ a b DiBiase, David; DeMers, Michael; Johnson, Ann; Kemp, Karen; Luck, Ann Taylor; Plewe, Brandon; Wentz, Elizabeth (2006). Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (1 ed.). Association of American Geographers. ISBN 978-0-89291-267-4.
- ^ a b Koylu, Caglar; Tian, Geng; Windsor, Mary (2023). "Flowmapper.org: a web-based framework for designing origin–destination flow maps". Journal of Maps. 19 (1). arXiv:2110.03662. doi:10.1080/17445647.2021.1996479. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
- ^ Kim, Kamyoung; Lee, Sang-Il; Shin, Jungyeop; Choi, Eunyoung (2012). "Developing a Flow Mapping Module in a GIS Environment". The Cartographic Journal. 49 (2): 164–175. doi:10.1179/174327711X13166800242356. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
- ^ a b Tobler, Waldo R. (1987). ""Measuring Spatial Resolution", Proceedings, Land Resources Information Systems Conference, Beijing". Retrieved 25 May 2024.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ a b Goodchild, Michael F. (1986). Spatial Autocorrelation (PDF). ISBN 0-86094-223-6.
- ^ a b Anselin, Luc; Li, Xun (2020). "Tobler's Law in a Multivariate World". Geographical Analysis. 52 (4): 494–510. doi:10.1111/gean.12237. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ Waters, Nigel (2017). "Tobler's First Law of Geography". International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg1011. ISBN 9781118786352. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Goodchild, Michael F. (2022). "The Openshaw effect". International Journal of Geographical Information Science. 36 (9): 1697–1698. Bibcode:2022IJGIS..36.1697G. doi:10.1080/13658816.2022.2102637. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ Westlund, Hans (18 August 2013). "A brief history of time, space, and growth: Waldo Tobler's first law of geography revisited". The Annals of Regional Science. 51 (3): 917–924. doi:10.1007/s00168-013-0571-3. S2CID 253684065. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ Hecht, Brent; Moxley, Emily (2009). "Terabytes of Tobler: Evaluating the First Law in a Massive, Domain-Neutral Representation of World Knowledge". Spatial Information Theory 9th International Conference, COSIT 2009, Aber Wrac'h, France, September 21–25, 2009, Proceedings. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 5756. Springer. p. 88. Bibcode:2009LNCS.5756...88H. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03832-7_6. ISBN 978-3-642-03831-0.
- ^ Smith, Peter (2005). "The laws of geography". Teaching Geography. 30 (3): 150.
- ^ Miller, Harvey J. (2004). "Tobler's First Law and Spatial analysis". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 94 (2): 284–289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402005.x. JSTOR 3693985. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ Klippel, Alexander; Hardisty, Frank; Li, Rui (2011). "Interpreting Spatial Patterns: An Inquiry Into Formal and Cognitive Aspects of Tobler's First Law of Geography" (PDF). Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 101 (5): 1011–1031. doi:10.1080/00045608.2011.577364. JSTOR 27980249. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ Haidu, Ionel (2016). "What is Technical Geography – a letter from the editor". Geographia Technica. 11: 1–5. doi:10.21163/GT_2016.111.01.
- ^ Ferrie, Chris; Mathews, Adam (2022). ABCs of Geography. Sourcebooks. ISBN 9781728232591. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
- ^ Puttick, Steve (2023). "Book Review: ABCs of Geography: Simple Explanations of Complex Concepts Like Distance, Place, Region, and More!". The AAG Review of Books. 11 (4): 23–24. doi:10.1080/2325548X.2023.2240973. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
- ^ Arbia, Giuseppe; Benedetti, R.; Espa, G. (1996). ""Effects of MAUP on image classification"". Journal of Geographical Systems. 3: 123–141.
- ^ Otto, Philipp; Doğan, Osman; Taşpınar, Süleyman (8 November 2023). "A Dynamic Spatiotemporal Stochastic Volatility Model with an Application to Environmental Risks". Econometrics and Statistics. arXiv:2211.03178. doi:10.1016/j.ecosta.2023.11.002.
- ^ Walker, Robert Toovey (28 Apr 2021). "Geography, Von Thünen, and Tobler's first law: Tracing the evolution of a concept". Geographical Review. 112 (4): 591–607. doi:10.1080/00167428.2021.1906670. S2CID 233620037.
- ^ Zhu, Rui; Janowicz, Krzysztof; Mai, Gengchen (2017). "Making direction a first-class citizen of Tobler's first law of geography". Transactions in GIS. 23 (3): 398–416. doi:10.1111/tgis.12550. S2CID 150367826. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Manning, Nicholas; Li, Yingjie; Liu, Jianguo (2023). "Broader applicability of the metacoupling framework than Tobler's first law of geography for global sustainability: A systematic review". Geography and Sustainability. 4 (1): 6–18. doi:10.1016/j.geosus.2022.11.003.
- ^ Zheng, Boming; Lin, Xijie; Yin, Duo; Qi, Xinhua (2023). "Does Tobler's first law of geography apply to internet attention? A case study of the Asian elephant northern migration event". PLOS ONE. 18 (3): e0282474. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1882474Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0282474. PMC 9977022. PMID 36857382.
- ^ Dobson, Jerome E.; Brlght, Edward A.; Coleman, Phllllp R.; Durfee, Rlchard C.; Worley, Brian A. (2000). "LandScan: A Global Population Database for Estimating Populations at Risk" (PDF). Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing. 66 (7): 849–857. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
- ^ a b c d Goodchild, Michael F. (2020). "Beyond Tobler's Hiking Function". Geographical Analysis. 52 (4): 558–569. Bibcode:2020GeoAn..52..558G. doi:10.1111/gean.12253. S2CID 225510431. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ Higgins, Christopher D (2021). "Hiking with Tobler: Tracking Movement and Calibrating a Cost Function for Personalized 3D Accessibility". Transport Findings. doi:10.32866/001c.28107. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ a b c d Wilford, John Noble (1982). The Mapmakers: The Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography from Antiquity to the Space Age. New York: Random House Inc. p. 318. ISBN 0-394-75303-8. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
- ^ "WALDO-TOBLER AWARDS". Kommision Fur Geographic Information Science. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ a b "WALDO-TOBLER GISCIENCE PRIZE". Kommision Fur Geographic Information Science. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ a b "LAUREATES". Kommision Fur Geographic Information Science. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ "YOUNG RESEARCHER AWARD". Kommision Fur Geographic Information Science. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ "The Waldo Tobler Distinguished Lecture in GIScience and Transactions in GIS Plenary Presentations". AAG 2023 Annual Meeting. American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ a b "HONORARY FELLOWSHIPS 1960s". Honorary Fellowships. American Geographical Society. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ "The Cullum Geographical Medal" Archived 2009-07-04 at the Wayback Machine. American Geographical Society. Retrieved June 17, 2010.
- ^ "AAG Honors". American Association of Geographers. Retrieved 8 January 2024.
- ^ "Dr. Waldo Tobler Presented the Lifetime Achievement in GIS Award". ArcNews. ESRI. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ "URISA GIS HALL OF FAME". The Urban and Regional Information Systems Association. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ "Department of Geography – Waldo Tobler Memorial Lecture Fund". Giving UCSB. University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ Chrisman, Nicholas (2019). "Cartography and Geographic Information Science: An International Journal" (PDF). US National Committee for the International Cartographic Association. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ Murray, Alan T.; Clarke, Keith C., eds. (2020). "Special Issue:In honor of Waldo Tobler". Geographical Analysis (4): 475–661. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
- ^ Francisco de Abreu, João (2018). "First law of geography, first computer map, cartograms, analytical cartography, wind model – tribute to Waldo Tobler: scientist, geographer, cartographer". Annals of GIS. 24 (3): 221–222. Bibcode:2018AnGIS..24..221D. doi:10.1080/19475683.2018.1471521. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
External links
[edit]- Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
- American geographers
- Swiss geographers
- 1930 births
- 2018 deaths
- University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
- University of Michigan faculty
- Human geographers
- University of Washington alumni
- American cartographers
- Geographic information scientists
- People from Portland, Oregon