Contaminants of emerging concern

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Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) is a term used by water quality professionals to describe pollutants that have been detected in environmental monitoring samples, that may cause ecological or human health impacts, and typically are not regulated under current environmental laws. Sources of these pollutants include agriculture, urban runoff and ordinary household products (such as soaps and disinfectants) and pharmaceuticals that are disposed to sewage treatment plants and subsequently discharged to surface waters.[1][2]

Examples of emerging contaminants are 1,4-Dioxane, food additives, pharmaceuticals, and natural & synthetic hormones.[3] CECs have the ability to enter the water cycle after being discharged as waste through the process of runoff making its way into rivers, directly through effluent discharge, or by the process of seepage and infiltration into the water table, eventually entering the public water supply system.[4] Emerging contaminants are known to cause endocrine disrupting activity and other toxic mechanisms, some are recognized as known carcinogens by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[5]

General problem[edit]

For a compound to be recognized as an emerging contaminant it has to meet at least two requirements:[6]

  1. Adverse human health effects have been associated with a compound.
  2. There is an established relationship between the positive and negative effect(s) of the compound.

Emerging contaminants are those which have not previously been detected through water quality analysis, or have been found in small concentrations with uncertainty as to their effects. The risk they pose to human or environmental health is not fully understood.[6]

Contaminant classes[edit]

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) can be broadly classed into several categories of chemicals such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products, cyanotoxins, nanoparticles, and flame retardants, among others.[7] However, these classifications are constantly changing as new contaminants (or effects) are discovered and emerging contaminants from past years become less of a priority. These contaminants can generally be categorized as truly "new" contaminants that have only recently been discovered and researched, contaminants that were known about but their environmental effects were not fully understood, or "old" contaminants that have new information arising regarding their risks.[7]

Pharmaceuticals[edit]

Pharmaceuticals are gaining more attention as CECs because of their continual introduction into the environment and their general lack of regulation.[8] These compounds are often present at low concentrations in water bodies and little is currently known about their environmental and health effects from chronic exposure; pharmaceuticals are only now becoming a focus in toxicology due to improved analytical techniques that allow very low concentrations to be detected.[8] There are several sources of pharmaceuticals in the environment, including most prominently effluent from sewage treatment plants, aquaculture and agricultural runoff.[9]

Personal care products[edit]

Personal care products often contain a complex mixture of chemicals such as preservatives (e.g., parabens), UV filters (e.g., oxybenzone), plasticizers (e.g., phthalates), antimicrobials (e.g., triclosan), fragrances, and colorants.[10] Many of these compounds are synthesized chemicals that are not typically found in nature. Chemicals from personal care products can enter the environment through various pathways. After use, they are often washed down the drain and can end up in the wastewater stream. These substances are not all completely removed by conventional wastewater treatment processes, leading to their release into natural water bodies. Some of these chemicals are persistent in the environment and can bioaccumulate in the tissues of organisms, potentially causing ecological disruptions. They can also have endocrine-disrupting properties that interfere with the hormonal systems of wildlife and humans.[11]

Cyanotoxins[edit]

In recent years, there has been an increase of cyanobacterial blooms due to the eutrophication (or increase in nutrient levels) of surface waters around the world.[12] Increases in certain nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are linked to fertilizer runoff from agricultural fields, and are also found in certain products, such as detergents, in urban spaces.[13] These blooms can release toxins that can decrease water quality and are a risk to human and wildlife health.[12] Additionally, there are a lack of regulations regarding the maximum contaminant levels (MCL) allowed in drinking water sources.[13] Cyanotoxins can have both acute and chronic toxic effects, and there are often many consequences for the health of the environment where these blooms occur.[13]

Industrial chemicals[edit]

Industrial chemicals from various industries produce harmful chemicals that are known to cause harm to human health and the environment. Common industrial chemicals, like 1,4-Dioxanes, Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), are commonly found in various water sources.

Nanomaterials[edit]

Nanomaterials include carbon-based materials, metal oxides, metals, and quantum dots.[14] Nanomaterials can enter the environment during their manufacturing, consumer use, or disposal. Due to their small size, nanomaterials behave differently than larger particles.[15] They have a high surface area to volume ratio, which can lead to increased reactivity and the potential to transport throughout the environment. Nanomaterials are challenging to detect and monitor due to their size and the absence of standardized methods for measuring their presence and concentration in various media.[16]

Sources and pathways[edit]

Agricultural runoff[edit]

Agricultural runoff carrying CECs into the environment

Agricultural runoff is a major pathway through which CECs enter the environment.[17] Compounds like pesticides and pharmaceuticals from fertilizers are carried by water from farms into their surrounding areas soil and water bodies.[18] Then runoff happens after rainfall or irrigation, which causes an influx of chemicals to leak out of the soil where they were dumped and into rivers, lakes, and groundwater.[18] The runoff can contain a CEC’s which are not regulated or whose environmental impacts are not well understood,[6] contributing to the pollution of aquatic ecosystems, and potentially affecting human water sources. A significant challenge is monitoring levels of CECs in bodies of water. A nationwide survey revealed that soil erosion, nutrient loss, and pesticide runoff from America's vast agricultural lands are leading causes of water quality pollution. Approximately 46% of rivers and streams in the United States have conditions which are harmful to aquatic life. Additionally, only about 28% of these water bodies are rated as 'healthy' based on their biological communities.[19]

Industrial discharge  [edit]

Industrial discharge is when waste products are released into the environment from manufacturing and chemical processing facilities.[20] This waste can include a wide variety of CECs like heavy metals, solvents, and various organic compounds that are not regularly detected for or removed by standard treatment processes.[21] These contaminants can accumulate in sediments and biota, posing risks to aquatic life and human health. The complexity and diversity of industrial discharge requires advanced treatment technologies and stricter regulatory frameworks to prevent CECs from contaminating the environment. Advanced oxidation processes and membrane technologies have been researched and shown to reduce CECs from industrial discharge, however there is an excessive cost to retrofit existing treatment facilities with this technology.[22]

Urban runoff  [edit]

Urban runoff is rainwater that runs through streets, gardens, and other urban surfaces, picking up various pollutants along the way.[23] These pollutants can include CECs like microplastics from synthetic materials, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from vehicle exhausts, and pharmaceuticals from improperly disposed medications.[24] This untreated runoff can enter storm drains and eventually discharge into natural water bodies, often bypassing wastewater treatment facilities and leading to their accumulation in the environment, where they can cause harm to wildlife and potentially enter the human food chain. Permeable pavements and rain gardens are being implemented and tested in some urban areas to mitigate the effects of runoff, helping to filter pollutants before they reach the water system.[25]

Wastewater treatment plants  [edit]

Wastewater treatment plant removing contaminants from industrial wastewater

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are designed to remove contaminants from domestic and industrial wastewater before it is released into the environment.[26] However, some WWTPs, particularly older or under-resourced ones are not equipped to effectively remove all CECs, such as advanced pharmaceuticals, personal care product ingredients, and certain types of industrial chemicals.[27] These substances can pass through the treatment process and enter aquatic ecosystems,[28] which creates a challenge for water treatment technology and emphasizes the need for ongoing research and infrastructure improvement to address the removal of CECs from wastewater. Advances like tertiary treatment stages, which incorporate advanced filtration and chemical removal techniques, are being tested to address the presence of CECs in waste, though widespread implementation is yet to be seen due to novelty, cost, and logistical challenges.[29]

Environmental and health impacts[edit]

Relation between compound and effects[edit]

There is an overlap of many anthropogenically sourced chemicals that humans are exposed to regularly. This makes it difficult to attribute negative health causality to a specific, isolated compound. EPA manages a Contaminant Candidate List to review substances that may need to be controlled in public water systems.[30] EPA has also listed twelve contaminants of emerging concern at federal facilities, with ranging origins, health effects, and means of exposure.[31] The twelve listed contaminants are as follows: Trichloropropane (TCP), Dioxane, Trinitrotoluene (TNT), Dinitrotoluene, Hexahydro-trinitro-triazane (RDX), N-nitroso-dimethylamine (NDMA), Perchlorate, Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), Tungsten, Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and Nanomaterials.

Selected compounds listed as emerging contaminants[edit]

The NORMAN network[32] enhances the exchange of information on emerging environmental substances. A Suspect List Exchange[33] (SLE) has been created to allow sharing of the many potential contaminants of emerging concern. The list contains more than 100,000 chemicals.

Table 1 is a summary of emerging contaminants currently listed on one EPA website and a review article. Detailed use and health risk of commonly identified CECs are listed in the table below.[5][34]

Compound Uses Where it is Found Health Risks
Trichloropropane (TCP) Chemical intermediate, solvent, and cleaning product TCPs are denser than water, so they sink to the bottom of aquifers and contaminate them, they also have a low capacity to be absorbed organically and leach into soil or evaporate, contaminating the air Considered a likely carcinogen by NOAA
Dioxane Stabilizer of chlorinated solvents, manufacturing of PET, manufacturing by-product Often at industrial sites, and they move rapidly from soil to groundwater, although it was phased out as part of the Montreal Protocol it is very resistant to bio-degradation and has been found at over 34 EPA sites Rapid disruption of lung, liver, kidney, spleen, colon, and muscle tissue, may be toxic to developing fetuses and is a potential carcinogen
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Pure explosive, military and underwater blasting Major contaminant of groundwater and soils Listed as cancer-causing by Office of Environmental Health, may cause carcinoma and bladder papilloma
Dinitrotoluene Intermediate to form TNT, explosive Found in surface water, groundwater, and soil at hazardous waste sites, and may be released into the air as dust or aerosols Considered a hepatocarcinogen and may cause ischemic heart disease, hepatobiliary cancer, and urothelial and renal cell cancers
Hexahydro-trinitro-triazane (RDX) Military explosive Exists as particulate matter in the atmosphere, easily leaches into groundwater and aquifers from soil, does not readily evaporate from water Decreased body weight, kidney and liver damage, possible carcinoma, insomnia, nausea, and tremor
Nanomaterials Broad classification of ultrafine particulate matter used in more than 1,800 consumer products and biomedical applications Released as consumer waste or spillage, may be airborne, found in food, or in many diverse industrial processes May translocate into the circulatory system primarily through the lungs, exposing the body to an accumulation of compounds in the liver, spleen, kidney, and brain
N-nitroso-dimethylamine (NDMA) Formed in the production of antioxidants, additives, softeners, and rocket fuel, and an unintended byproduct of the chlorination of waste and drinking water at treatment facilities Broken down quickly when released into the air, but highly mobile when released into soil and will likely leach into groundwater, humans may be exposed by drinking contaminated water, ingesting contaminated food, or using products that contain NDMA Probable carcinogen, evidence of liver damage, reduced function of kidneys and lungs
Perchlorate Manufacturing and combustion of solid rocket propellants, munitions, fireworks, airbag initiators, and flares Highly soluble in water so it can greatly accumulate in groundwater, also accumulates in some food crop leaves and milk Eye, skin, and respiratory irritation and in high volumes corrosion. Potentially disrupts thyroid hormones
Perfluoro-octane sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) Used in additives and coatings, non-stick cookware, waterproof clothing, cardboard packaging, wire casing, and resistant tubing During manufacturing, the compounds were released into the surrounding air, ground, and water, is resistant to typical environmental degradation processes and have been shown to bioaccumulate, found in oceans and Arctic, meaning they have a high capacity for transport World Health Organization categorized possible carcinogen, may cause high cholesterol, increased liver enzymes, and adverse reproductive and developmental effects
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) Flame retardant Detected in the air, sediments, surface water, fish and other marine animals, they do not dissolve so they are not mobile in water but are volatile and prevalent in the atmosphere Classified by International Agency for Research on Cancer as likely carcinogenic, neurotoxic, and thyroid, liver, and kidney toxicity as well as an endocrine disruptor
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) Flame retardant and used in plastics, furniture, and other household products Enter the environment through emissions, and has been detected in air, sediments, surface water, fish and other marine animals Shown to be an endocrine disruptor as well as carcinogenic, also, may cause neural, liver, pancreatic, and thyroid toxicity
Tungsten A naturally occurring element which exists in various household products and military manufacturing Tungsten is water-soluble under certain conditions and may be found in dangerous quantities in water sources May cause respiratory complications, and investigated as a potential carcinogen by the CDC
Diclofenac Anti-inflammatory drug Can be found in water treatment plant (WTP) effluents. Reported to be found in coastal waters as well In large quantities can cause serious gastrointestinal toxicity. Severe ecotoxicity to selected breeds of animals
Bisphenol A (BPA) Industrial plastic production (polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins) Found to accumulate in water treatment plant (WTP) effluents BPA is cytotoxic and mutagenic. It exerts various adverse effects on reproductive, immune, endocrine and nervous systems
Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) Antibiotics Reported to be found in various freshwater systems Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and skin rashes. It is a sulfonamide and bacteriostatic
Carbamazepine Anticonvulsant Reported to be found in various freshwater systems and WTP effluents. Common side effects include nausea and drowsiness. Serious side effects may include skin rashes, decreased bone marrow function, suicidal thoughts, or confusion.

Aquatic life[edit]

The environmental impact of CECs on aquatic life is broad. For example, endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have the potential to imitate natural hormones, which can lead to reproductive failures and eventually population declines or increases in fish and amphibians. EDCs are found in a variety of common contaminants, including pesticides and industrial chemicals, and they can also lead to altered growth and reproduction in aquatic life​ (US EPA)​​ (USGS.gov).[35][36] Microplastics are another concern, as they can lead to physical blockages in the digestive tracts of aquatic organisms and act as paths for other toxins, leading to bioaccumulation and increase in concentration as they move up each level of the food chain​.[35]​ These impacts not only threaten biodiversity but also the stability of aquatic ecosystems upon which many species depend. Ongoing monitoring and regulatory efforts are crucial for assessing the full scope of CECs' impacts and for the development of effective strategies to mitigate their presence in aquatic ecosystems (NOAA.gov).[37]  

Human health[edit]

When CECs bypass water filtration systems and contaminate drinking water or accumulate in the food chain, they can also cause risks to human health. Chronic exposure to low doses of CECs has been linked to various health issues. For example, certain pharmaceutical CECs and EDCs have been associated with hormonal imbalances, increased risks of certain cancers, and developmental problems.[35] The antibiotics present in the environment can also contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which poses a serious threat to human health by reducing the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments​.[35] Studies have shown that even at low concentrations, the presence of CECs in drinking water can correlate with neurological disorders and can decrease cognitive function over time.[38] Certain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are a type of CEC, have been linked to different adverse health outcomes like increased cholesterol levels, changes in liver enzymes, and reduced vaccine efficacy, which raises concerns about widespread exposure to these chemicals​.[39] The CDC also identifies exposure to high levels of CECs with negative effects on the immune system, by compromising the body’s ability to fight infections and increasing the risk of rheumatological diseases​​.[38] Exposure to a combination of various CECs, which can occur through contaminated drinking water or food chains, may lead to cumulative on human health that are not yet fully understood​.[38][39]

Wildlife

Wildlife, particularly species reliant on aquatic environments, are exceptionally vulnerable to the disruptions caused by CECs. Terrestrial species can be exposed to CECs through contaminated food, water, and soil. These contaminants can cause pollution which can lead to mortality or can indirectly result in changes in behavior which affect essential activities like feeding and mating. Migratory species are especially at risk as they can spread the impact of CECs across various ecosystems​.[35][36]The health of wildlife populations is an important indicator of environmental quality, and the presence of CECs can signal broader ecological issues that require attention.

Solutions[edit]

These are tactics and methods that aim to remediate the effects of certain, or all, CECs by preventing movement throughout the environment, or limiting their concentrations in certain environmental systems. It is particularly important to ensure that water treatment approaches do not simply move contaminants from effluent to sludge given the potential for sludge to be spread to land providing an alternative route to entering the environment.

Advanced treatment plant technology[edit]

For some emerging contaminants, several advanced technologies—sonolysis, photocatalysis,[34] Fenton-based oxidation[40] and ozonation—have treated pollutants in laboratory experiments.[41] Another technology is "enhanced coagulation" in which the treatment entity would work to optimize filtration by removing precursors to contamination through treatment. In the case of THMs, this meant lowering the pH, increasing the feed rate of coagulants, and encouraging domestic systems to operate with activated carbon filters and apparatuses that can perform reverse osmosis.[42] Although these methods are effective, they are costly, and there have been many instances of treatment plants being resistant to pay for the removal of pollution, especially if it wasn't created in the water treatment process as many EC's occur from runoff, past pollution sources, and personal care products. It is also difficult to incentivize states to have their own policies surrounding contamination because it can be burdensome for states to pay for screening and prevention processes. There is also an element of environmental injustice, in that lower income communities with less purchasing and political power cannot buy their own system for filtration and are regularly exposed to harmful compounds in drinking water and food.[43] However, recent treads for light-based systems shows great potential for such applications. With the decrease in cost of UV-LED systems and growing prevalence of solar powered systems,[34] it shows great potential to remove CECs while keeping costs low.

Metal–organic framework-based nano-adsorbent remediation[edit]

Researchers have suggested that metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and MOF-based nano-adsorbents (MOF-NAs) could be used in the removal of certain CECs, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products, especially in wastewater treatment. Widespread use of MOF-based nano-adsorbents has yet to be implemented due to complications created by the vast physicochemical properties that CECs contain. The removal of CECs largely depends on the structure and porosity of the MOF-NAs and the physicochemical compatibility of both the CECs and the MOF-NAs.[44] If a CEC is not compatible with the MOF-NA, then particular functional groups can be chemically added to increase compatibility between the two molecules. The addition of functional groups causes the reactions to rely on other chemical processes and mechanisms, such as hydrogen bonding, acid-base reactions, and complex electrostatic forces.[44] MOF-based nano-adsorbent remediation heavily relies on water-qualities, such as pH, in order for the reaction to be executed efficiently. MOF-NA remediation can also be used to efficiently remove other heavy metals and organic compounds in wastewater treatment.

Membrane bioreactors[edit]

Membrane bioreactor being used to filter out CECs

Another method of possible remediation for CECs is through the use of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) that act through mechanisms of sorption and biodegradation. Membrane bioreactors have shown results on being able to filter out certain solutes and chemicals from wastewater through methods of microfiltration, but due to the extremely small size of CECs, MBRs must rely on other mechanisms in order to ensure the removal of CECs. One mechanism that MBRs use to remove CECs from wastewater is sorption. Sorption of the CECs to sludge deposits in the MBR's system can allow the deposits to sit and be bombarded with water, causing the eventual biodegradation of CECs in the membrane. Sorption of a particular CEC can be even more efficient in the system if the CEC is hydrophobic, causing it to move from the wastewater to the sludge deposits more quickly.[45]

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