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In the Somatic Experiencing method there is the concept of "coupling dynamics" in which the "under-coupled" state, where the traumatic experience exists, not as a unity, but as dissociated elements of the SIBAM. Ashen's description clearly matches this concept. In Ahsen's model there is the "principle of bipolar configurations" in which "every significant eidetic state involves configuration . . . around two opposed nuclei which contend against each other. Every ISM of the negative type has a counter-ISM of the positive type." <ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahsen |first1=Akhter |title=Basic Concepts in Eidetic Psychotherapy |date=1968 |publisher=Brandon House |location=New York |page=31}}</ref> This, like in Somatic Experiencing, has been diagramed as two opposing spirals or vortices.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryann |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic psychotherapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder |date=200 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley CA |page=55}}</ref> Levine credits his inspiration for the counter vortex to a dream and not Ahsen.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Levine |first1=Peter |title=The Stream of Life |url=https://vimeo.com/40734776 |website=Vimeo |access-date=5 March 2021}}</ref> Additionally, treatment of "post traumatic stress through imagery", like SE, "emphasizes exploitation of the somatic aspect over the visual component of Ashen's ISM model because of the strong emotional and physiological components that present themselves frontally in these cases."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dolan |first1=Anna T |title=Imagery Treatment of Phobiats anxiety states and other symptom complexes |date=1997 |publisher=Brandon House, Inc |location=New York |page=227}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryanna |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |date=2000 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=55}}</ref> Overcoupling, in Levine's model, is a term used to refer to the over association of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors related to the traumatic experience".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryanna |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic Psychotherapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder |date=2000 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=51}}</ref>
In the Somatic Experiencing method there is the concept of "coupling dynamics" in which the "under-coupled" state, where the traumatic experience exists, not as a unity, but as dissociated elements of the SIBAM. Ashen's description clearly matches this concept. In Ahsen's model there is the "principle of bipolar configurations" in which "every significant eidetic state involves configuration . . . around two opposed nuclei which contend against each other. Every ISM of the negative type has a counter-ISM of the positive type." <ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahsen |first1=Akhter |title=Basic Concepts in Eidetic Psychotherapy |date=1968 |publisher=Brandon House |location=New York |page=31}}</ref> This, like in Somatic Experiencing, has been diagramed as two opposing spirals or vortices.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryann |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic psychotherapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder |date=200 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley CA |page=55}}</ref> Levine credits his inspiration for the counter vortex to a dream and not Ahsen.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Levine |first1=Peter |title=The Stream of Life |url=https://vimeo.com/40734776 |website=Vimeo |access-date=5 March 2021}}</ref> Additionally, treatment of "post traumatic stress through imagery", like SE, "emphasizes exploitation of the somatic aspect over the visual component of Ashen's ISM model because of the strong emotional and physiological components that present themselves frontally in these cases."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dolan |first1=Anna T |title=Imagery Treatment of Phobiats anxiety states and other symptom complexes |date=1997 |publisher=Brandon House, Inc |location=New York |page=227}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryanna |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |date=2000 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=55}}</ref> Overcoupling, in Levine's model, is a term used to refer to the over association of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors related to the traumatic experience".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckberg |first1=Maryanna |title=Victims of Cruelty: Somatic Psychotherapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder |date=2000 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=51}}</ref>


Somatic Experiencing also shares many similarities with systematic desensitization, which was developed by Joseph Wolpe, to treat anxiety disorders and phobias in the late 1940's.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dolan |first1=Anna T |title=Imagery Treatment of Phobias anxiety states and other symptom complexes |publisher=Brandon House |location=New York |page=10}}</ref> SE uses "Resources", which are defined as anything that helps the client's [[autonomic nervous system]] return to a regulated state. This might be the memory of someone close to them, a physical item that might ground them in the present moment, or other supportive elements that minimize distress. Wolpe also relied on relaxation responses alternating with incremental or graduated exposure to anxiety provoking stimuli. Wolpe states that it "consists of exposing the patient, while in a state of emotional calmness, to a small "dose" of something he fears" using imaginal methods that allow the therapist "control precisely the beginning and ending of each presentation".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolpe |first1=Joseph |title=Our Useless Fears |date=1981 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |page=50}}</ref> This graduated increase in arousal is similar to the SE concept of "titration". In SE people "gently and incrementally reimagine and experience" and "slowly working in graduated "doses".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Naparstek |first1=Bellaruth |title=Invisible Heroes |date=2004 |publisher=Bantam Dell |location=New York |page=314}}</ref>
SE insists it "is not a form of exposure therapy" in that it "avoids direct and intense evocation of traumatic memories, instead approaching the charged memories indirectly and very gradually".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Payne |first1=Peter |title=Somatic experiencing: using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=February 4, 2015 |volume=6 |issue=93 |page=1 |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00093/full |access-date=31 March 2021}}</ref> However, systematic desensitization, one of the very first exposure therapies, which was developed by Joseph Wolpe in the 1940's to treat anxiety disorders and phobias meets this description exactly.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dolan |first1=Anna T |title=Imagery Treatment of Phobias anxiety states and other symptom complexes |publisher=Brandon House |location=New York |page=10}}</ref> Wolpe states that it "consists of exposing the patient, while in a state of emotional calmness, to a small "dose" of something he fears" using imaginal methods that allow the therapist "control precisely the beginning and ending of each presentation".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolpe |first1=Joseph |title=Our Useless Fears |date=1981 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |page=50}}</ref> This graduated exposure is similar to the SE concept of "titration". In SE people "gently and incrementally reimagine and experience" and "slowly working in graduated "doses"".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Naparstek |first1=Bellaruth |title=Invisible Heroes |date=2004 |publisher=Bantam Dell |location=New York |page=314}}</ref> SE uses "Resources", which are defined as anything that helps the client's [[autonomic nervous system]] return to a regulated state. This might be the memory of someone close to them, a physical item that might ground them in the present moment, or other supportive elements that minimize distress. Wolpe also relied on relaxation responses alternating with incremental or graduated exposure to anxiety provoking stimuli.


Somatic Experiencing also relies on restoring or completing incomplete defensive and orienting responses that were interrupted or distorted during the traumatic event.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Don |title=The Body in Psychotherapy |date=1998 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=31}}</ref> This is similar to how Gestalt Therapy looked at the trauma in the 1950's "as unfinished business" that included gestures, feelings and images.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Perls |first1=Frederick |title=Gestalt Therapy |date=1951 |publisher=The Gestalt Journal Press |pages=Chapter 5}}</ref>
Somatic Experiencing also relies on restoring or completing incomplete defensive and orienting responses that were interrupted or distorted during the traumatic event.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Don |title=The Body in Psychotherapy |date=1998 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, CA |page=31}}</ref> This is similar to how Gestalt Therapy looked at the trauma in the 1950's "as unfinished business" that included gestures, feelings and images.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Perls |first1=Frederick |title=Gestalt Therapy |date=1951 |publisher=The Gestalt Journal Press |pages=Chapter 5}}</ref>

Revision as of 17:42, 31 March 2021

Somatic experiencing is a form of alternative therapy aimed at relieving the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other mental and physical trauma-related health problems by focusing on the client's perceived body sensations (or somatic experiences). It was developed by trauma therapist Peter A. Levine.[1] Peter Levine trained in, and assisted at, Self Acceptance Training workshops with Dick Olney until 1989. Self-acceptance training incorporated Eriksonian hypnosis, Ahsen's eidetic image psychology, shamanistic interventions, bioenergetics, Gestalt psychology, and body awareness training to heal past traumas and adverse experiences. [2] Somatic Experiencing and Self Acceptance training share remarkable similarity in tone, style, influence, techniques and methodology.

The international headquarters for Somatic Experiencing, The Foundation for Human Enrichment (dba Somatic Experiencing International), is an educational non profit located in Boulder, CO. Additionally the Ergos Institute of Somatic Education (Ergos Institute, Inc) is an international training institute dedicated to advancing Somatic Experiencing® principles. The FHE and Ergos Institute were both founded and incorporated in 1994, the year Peter Levine's mentor, Dick Olney, passed away.[3] [4] Peter Levine's website discrepantly claims Ergos Institute was founded in 1972 and his Curriculum Vitae claims he founded it in 1985.[5] [6] The name "Ergos" was reportedly inspired by a vision in a dream by the originator.

Sessions are normally done in person, and involve a client tracking their own experience.[7]: 255–256  Practitioners are often mental health practitioners such as social workers, psychologists, marriage and family therapists (MFTs) or psychotherapists, but may also be nurses, physicians, physical therapists, clergy, massage therapists, Rolfers®, Craniosacral and Polarity therapists, Feldenkrais practitioners, yoga therapists, first responders, crisis center staff, educators, mediators, clergy, chaplains, coaches, etc.[8] [9]

Practitioners complete an 8 module training course consisting of 216 hours of instruction along with 18 hours of case consultations and 12 hours of personal sessions.[10] There is no formal licensing or certification process associated with the training. According to the Somatic Experiencing Institute website, not all "SE™ methods will be appropriate for inclusion in your professional practice. Training participants are responsible for operating within their professional scope of practice and for abiding by state and federal laws."[11] Given the wide variation in the education level, licensure, and scope of practice across jurisdictions for individual practitioners, there is no uniformity of how the method can legally be practiced. As one example, The Hawaii Board of Massage noted "that Somatic Experiencing is a technique that does not fall under the scope of practice of a massage therapist. The practice of massage therapy should be kept separate from any other professional practices, including Somatic Experiencing and trauma therapy."[12]

Unlike some of its sister somatic modalities(e.g. Biodynamic Craniosacal, Polarity Therapy, etc), Somatic Experiencing is not listed as an exempt modality from various massage practice acts in the United States,[13] and is not eligible to belong to The Federation of Therapeutic Massage, Bodywork and Somatic Practice Organizations, which was formed to protect the members right to practice as an independent profession.[14] Members of the Federation each have a professional regulating body with an enforceable code of ethics and standards of practice, continuing education requirements, process of certifying and ensuring competency and minimum of 500 hours of training. Somatic Experiencing Practitioners, as a "profession", do not meet any of these criteria unless they are already certified or licensed in another discipline. Given that the model has a growing evidenced base "for treating people with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)" that "integrates body awareness into the psychotherapeutic process" it is questionable whether or not it can be practiced by any profession that doesn't include psychotherapy, and treatment of mental disorders, within its scope of practice. [15] [16]

Somatic Experiencing is used for shock trauma[17] in the short term and for developmental trauma[18] as an adjunct to psychotherapy that may span years. Shock trauma was originally defined by Sigmund Freud as a breaching of the protective stimulus barrier and can be differentiated from developmental trauma which "involves interruptions or distortions in normal development, which result in charachterological patterns that impair healthy functioning."[19] The scope of the SE training does not substantively address attachment, relational or developmental issues.[20] Somatic Experiencing attempts to promote awareness and release physical tension that remains in the aftermath of trauma.[7]: 43–50 [21]: 38–40 

Methods

Somatic Experiencing is heavily predicated on Wilhelm Reich's theories of blocked emotion and how this emotion is held an released from the body.[22]One element of Somatic Experiencing therapy is "pendulation",[7]: 255  the natural intrinsic rhythm of the organism between contraction and expansion. Peter Levine takes credit for coining the term pendulation and compares it to the pulsatory rhythm of an amoeba.[23] According to Levine's website: "Pendulation is a term coined by Dr. Levine to describe the natural oscillation between opposing forces of contraction and expansion. Somatic Experiencing® utilizes this philosophy to help a client experience a sense of flow." [24] The concept, however, and its comparison to single celled organisms, can be traced to Wilhelm Reich, the father of somatic psychotherapy.[25] Alexander Lowen and John Pierrakos, both psychiatrists, built upon Reich's foundational theories, developing Bioenergetics, and also compared the rhythm of this life force energy to a pendulum.[26] In 1973 Lowen described it this way:

"The process of life may be viewed bioenergetically as charging up with excitation -^ discharging down with pleasure -^ more charging up (more excitation) -^ more discharging down (more pleasure). . . .The oscillating flow of feeling or energy in the body is like a great pendulum which keeps life moving easily and effortlessly."[27]

In 1987 John Perrakos references the concept in this way: "Energy sweeps out and in, tracing sometimes like a pendulum swing, in two phases of the reciprocal cycle, which correspond with the capacity of the physical torso to expand and contract." [28]

In Somatic Experiencing therapy, the client is helped to trust this natural rhythm of pendulation from dysregulated (i.e. is aroused or frozen, demonstrated by physical symptoms such as pain or numbness) and then iteratively helped to return to a state of regulation. The goal is to allow the client to resolve the physical and mental difficulties caused by the trauma, and thereby to be able to respond appropriately to everyday situations.[29] [30] A related concept to pendulation is the "trauma vortex" and "healing vortex" symbolized in Levine's model by two opposing spirals which adheres to Akhter Ahsen's "law of bipolarity".[31] [32] Peter Levine notes that this symbolism is similar to ones found at the entrance to the Celtic ruin at Newgrange, implying that he was intuitively "channeling" this ancient wisdom when he created this depiction and concept.Newgrange.[33] After reportedly having a "profound" dream Peter Levine believed he had been "assigned" the task "to protect this ancient knowledge from the Celtic Stone Age temples, and the Tibetan tradition, and to bring it to the scientific Western way of looking at things....".[34] Levine also credits a vision in a dream to how he came up with the healing vortex concept originally, despite it being part of his mentors model and originated with Ahsen's bipolarity concept. He also boasts of year long mystical conversations with an "apparition" of Albert Einstein to his "synchronistic awakening" in developing his model.[35]

Peter Levine indicates that during the 1970's he "developed a model" called SIBAM,[36] which broke down experience into five channels of Sensation, Image, Behavior, Affect and Meaning (or Cognition). SIBAM is a model considered both a model of experience and a model of dissociation.[37]Levine notes that the "SIBAM model stands in sharp contrast to the established hierarchical framework . . . of the standard, cognitive behavioral models."[38] This claim is not supported, however. Arnold Lazarus, who wrote the first textbook on Cognitive Behavior Therapy, developed Multimodal Therapy in the early 1970's, and unlike Levine, is widely cited for his contributions during that decade. Multimodal Therapy was similar to the SIBAM model in that it broke down experience into Behavior, Affect, Sensation, Image, and Cognition (or Meaning).[39] Lazarus even incorporated Eugene Gendlin's Focusing method into his model as a technique to circumvent cognitive blocks. Incorporation of this "bottom up" "felt sense" method is shared by both SE and Multimodal Therapy.[40] Lazarus, like Levine, was heavily influenced by Akhter Ahsen's "ISM unity" or "eidetic" concept.[41] [42] In 1968 Ahsen explains the ISM this way: "It is a tri-dimensional unity. . . . With this image is attached a characteristic body feeling peculiar to the image, which we call the somatic pattern. With this somatic pattern is attached a third state composed of a constellation of vague and clear meanings, which we call the meaning. Thus an eidetic is finally an image, a somatic pattern and a meaning, all in one. Taking the first letters of these three states, namely, image, somatic pattern and meaning, we briefly call an eidetic an ISM."[43] It is important to note that sensation, for Ahsen, included affective and physiological states.

Ahsen went on to apply his ISM concept to traumatic experiences which is strikingly similar to Peter Levine's later developed model.

"We consider that a symptom, like an event, is also an ISM. The individual may become traumatized by some event- an ISM- and may try to suppress his relationship with it. A repressed ISM is, however, not repressed in the accepted dynamic sense but is pushed behind a seriality of states. However, it continues to invade consciousness or break through the behavior of the individual, not as a unity, but in the form of three separate dimensions. The individual then tends to respond to spatial forms and patterns in a certain way, comparable to allergy reactions. His body tends to spontaneously assume certain postures and develop activations as he is himself haunted by vague elusive meanings which occupy his consciousness".[43]

In the Somatic Experiencing method there is the concept of "coupling dynamics" in which the "under-coupled" state, where the traumatic experience exists, not as a unity, but as dissociated elements of the SIBAM. Ashen's description clearly matches this concept. In Ahsen's model there is the "principle of bipolar configurations" in which "every significant eidetic state involves configuration . . . around two opposed nuclei which contend against each other. Every ISM of the negative type has a counter-ISM of the positive type." [44] This, like in Somatic Experiencing, has been diagramed as two opposing spirals or vortices.[45] Levine credits his inspiration for the counter vortex to a dream and not Ahsen.[46] Additionally, treatment of "post traumatic stress through imagery", like SE, "emphasizes exploitation of the somatic aspect over the visual component of Ashen's ISM model because of the strong emotional and physiological components that present themselves frontally in these cases."[47] [48] Overcoupling, in Levine's model, is a term used to refer to the over association of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors related to the traumatic experience".[49]

SE insists it "is not a form of exposure therapy" in that it "avoids direct and intense evocation of traumatic memories, instead approaching the charged memories indirectly and very gradually".[50] However, systematic desensitization, one of the very first exposure therapies, which was developed by Joseph Wolpe in the 1940's to treat anxiety disorders and phobias meets this description exactly.[51] Wolpe states that it "consists of exposing the patient, while in a state of emotional calmness, to a small "dose" of something he fears" using imaginal methods that allow the therapist "control precisely the beginning and ending of each presentation".[52] This graduated exposure is similar to the SE concept of "titration". In SE people "gently and incrementally reimagine and experience" and "slowly working in graduated "doses"".[53] SE uses "Resources", which are defined as anything that helps the client's autonomic nervous system return to a regulated state. This might be the memory of someone close to them, a physical item that might ground them in the present moment, or other supportive elements that minimize distress. Wolpe also relied on relaxation responses alternating with incremental or graduated exposure to anxiety provoking stimuli.

Somatic Experiencing also relies on restoring or completing incomplete defensive and orienting responses that were interrupted or distorted during the traumatic event.[54] This is similar to how Gestalt Therapy looked at the trauma in the 1950's "as unfinished business" that included gestures, feelings and images.[55] In the face of arousal, "discharge" is facilitated to allow the client's body to return to a regulated state. Discharge may be in the form of tears, a warm sensation, unconscious movement, the ability to breathe easily again, or other responses which demonstrate the autonomic nervous system returning to its baseline.[56][57] The intention of this process is to reinforce the client's inherent capacity to self-regulate.[58] The charge/discharge concept in Somatic Experiencing has its origins in Reichian therapy and Bioenergetics.[59] Levine's predecessors in the somatic psychotherapy field clearly understood the dynamics of shock trauma and the failure of mobilization of fight or flight impulses in creating symptoms of anxiety neuroses and to maintain a chronic "state of emergency". They also understood that healing involved completion of this "charge" associated with truncated fight or flight impulses. [60][61]

Somatic Experiencing is used for both shock trauma and developmental trauma. Shock trauma is loosely defined as a single-episode traumatic event such as a car accident, natural disaster such as an earthquake, battlefield incident, physical attack, etc.[62] Developmental trauma refers to various kinds of psychological damage that occur during child development when a child has insufficient or detrimental attention from the primary caregivers.[7]: 99–125 [need quotation to verify][63]

Evidence

Two randomized controlled studies of Somatic Experiencing as a treatment for PTSD were published in 2017 .[64][65] They showed positive results indicating Somatic Experiencing may be an effective therapy method for PTSD and concluded that further research is needed to understand who shall benefit most from this treatment modality.

See also

References

  1. ^ van der Kolk, Bessel (2014). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma. Penguin. p. 217. ISBN 9781101608302.
  2. ^ "Self Acceptance Training". self acceptance.us. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  3. ^ "Business Search Results". Colorado Secretary of State. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  4. ^ "Summary: Foundation for Human Enrichment". Colorado Secretary of State. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  5. ^ Levine, Peter A. "Curriculum Vitae" (PDF). Ergos Institute. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  6. ^ "Ergos". Ergos Institute. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  7. ^ a b c d Scaer, Robert C.: The Trauma Spectrum. Hidden Wounds and Human Resiliency. W.W. Norton & Company, N.Y. & London, 2005
  8. ^ "Admission Requirements". Somatic Experiencing Website.
  9. ^ Winblad, Neil (16 February 2018). "Effect of Somatic Experiencing resiliency-based trauma treatment training on quality of life and psychological health as potential markers of resilience in treating professionals". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 12 (70): 4. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
  10. ^ Somatic experiencing Australia training, Retrieved 2 April 2018
  11. ^ "Admissions Requirements". Somatic Experiencing Trauma Institute. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  12. ^ "Board of Massage Therapy Meeting Minutes" (PDF). State of Hawaii-Department of Consumer Affairs. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  13. ^ "Energetic Healing Arts – Statutes – Exemptions – Requirements by State". One Tree Guild. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  14. ^ "The Federation of Therapeutic Massage, Bodywork and Somatic Practice Organizations". The Federation of Therapeutic Massage, Bodywork and Somatic Practice Organizations. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  15. ^ Brom, Danny (2017). "Somatic Experiencing for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A randomized consoled outcome study" (PDF). Journal of Traumatic Stress. 30 (3): 304. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  16. ^ Page, Cory (April 2017). "National Assessment of Scopes of Practice for the Behavioral Health Workforce: April 2017" (PDF). University of Michigan Behavioral Health Workforce Research Center. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
  17. ^ Keleman, Stanley (1989). Patterns of distress : emotional insults and human form. Berkeley, California: Center Press. pp. 15–18.
  18. ^ "Developmental Trauma: How useful is this framework?". The Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.
  19. ^ Eckberg, Maryanna (2000). Victims of Cruelty: Somatic Psychotherapy in the treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Berkeley, CA: Norton Atlantic Books. p. 1. ISBN 1556433530.
  20. ^ Heller, Lawrence (2012). Healing Developmental Trauma. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. p. 24.
  21. ^ Scaer, Robert C. (2001). The Body Bears the Burden: Trauma, Dissociation, and Disease. The Haworth Press. p. 275. ISBN 0789033348. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  22. ^ Totton, Nick (2003). Body Psychotherapy: An Introduction. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. p. 120.
  23. ^ Levine, Peter. "What is Pendulation in Somatic Experiencing® with Peter A Levine, PhD". YouTube. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
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  25. ^ Reich, Wilhelm (1945). Character Analysis. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. p. 395.
  26. ^ Eckberg, Maryanna (2000). Victims of Cruelty: Somatic psychotherapy in the treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. Berkeley CA: North Atlantic Books. p. 36.
  27. ^ Lowen, Alexander (1973). Depression and the body : the biological basis of faith and reality. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 58.
  28. ^ John, Pierrakos (1987). Core energetics : developing the capacity to love and heal. Mendocino, CA: LifeRhythm Publication. p. 85.
  29. ^ Mary ware Somatic Experiencing, Retrieved 2 April 2018
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  32. ^ Johnson, Don (1998). The Body in Psychotherapy. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. p. 144.
  33. ^ Levine, Peter A (1997). Waking the Tiger. North Atlantic Books. p. 400.
  34. ^ LaPierre, Aline (Spring 2020). "A Shaman's Scientific Journey Conversation with Peter Levine" (PDF). International Body Psychotherapy Journal. 19 (1): 15–22. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  35. ^ LaPierre, Aline (Spring 2020). "A Shaman's Scientific Journey Conversation with Peter Levine" (PDF). International Body Psychotherapy Journal. 19 (1): 15–22. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
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  39. ^ Lazarus, Arnold (June 1973). "Multimodal Behavior Therapy: Treating the BASIC ID". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 156 (6): 404–411.
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  47. ^ Dolan, Anna T (1997). Imagery Treatment of Phobiats anxiety states and other symptom complexes. New York: Brandon House, Inc. p. 227.
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  52. ^ Wolpe, Joseph (1981). Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 50.
  53. ^ Naparstek, Bellaruth (2004). Invisible Heroes. New York: Bantam Dell. p. 314.
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  55. ^ Perls, Frederick (1951). Gestalt Therapy. The Gestalt Journal Press. pp. Chapter 5.
  56. ^ Schroeder, Vincent (2017). Buddha's Mom. p. 238. ISBN 10: 0692582571. Retrieved 27 March 2021. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  57. ^ Totten, Nick (2003). Body Psychotherapy: An Introduction. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. p. 73.
  58. ^ Young, Courtnay (2015). The Handbook of Body Psychotherapy and Somatic Psychology (PDF). Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. p. 627. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  59. ^ Lowen, Alexander (1975). Bioenergetic Psychotherapy. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. pp. 49–54.
  60. ^ Lowen, Alexander (1972). Depression and the Body. Harmondsworth, Eng: Penguin Books. p. 66.
  61. ^ Boadella, David (1973). Wilhelm Reich: The evolution of his work. Vision Press. p. 107.
  62. ^ Gomentor shock trauma, Retrieved 2 April 2018
  63. ^ Weinholds developmental trauma, retrieved 2 April 2018
  64. ^ Brom D, Stokar Y, Lawi C, Nuriel-Porat V, Ziv Y, Lerner K, Ross G (2017). "Somatic Experiencing for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Outcome Study". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 30 (3): 304–312. doi:10.1002/jts.22189. PMC 5518443. PMID 28585761.
  65. ^ Andersen T, Lahav Y, Ellegaard H, Manniche C (2017). "A randomized controlled trial of brief Somatic Experiencing for chronic low back pain and comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms". European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 8 (1). doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1331108. PMC 5489867. PMID 28680540.
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