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#REDIRECT [[Ojos del Salado]]
{{Short description|Highest volcano in the world}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Ojos del Salado
| photo = Ojos del Salado looming big on the horizon.jpg
| photo_caption =
|elevation_ref={{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}}
|coordinates={{coord|27.109|S|68.541|W|display=intitle,inline}}
|coordinates_ref={{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}}
| listing = [[Volcanic Seven Summits]]<br/>[[Seven Second Summits]]<br/>[[List of elevation extremes by country|Country high point]]<br/>[[Ultra-prominent peak|Ultra]]
| location = [[Argentina]]–[[Chile]]
| range = [[Andes]]
| map = Chile
| map_caption = Location on the Argentina–Chile border
| label_position = left
| topo = Highest mountain: Highest Mountain in Chile
| type = [[stratovolcano]]
| age =
| last_eruption = 700 AD ± 300 years<ref name="smithsonian"/>
| first_ascent = February 26, 1937, by Jan Alfred Szczepański and Justyn Wojsznis
| easiest_route = [[Scrambling|Scramble]]
}}
[[File:Ojos penitentes 2020-02.jpg|thumb|352x352px|Penitente field at an altitude of approximately 6500 m on northern face of Ojos del Salado in summer of 2020]]
[[File:Volcanic Landscapes, Central Andes labelled.jpg|thumb|350px|Volcanic Landscapes of the Central Andes. Shown are Nevado Ojos del Salado, [[Cerro El Cóndor]], and [[Peinado]], along the Argentina-Chile border. Astronaut photo from [[International Space Station]], 2010]]
'''Nevado Ojos del Salado''' is an active [[stratovolcano]] in the [[Andes]] on the [[Argentina]]–[[Chile]] border and the highest active [[volcano]] in the world at {{convert|6893|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Axel |last1=Borsdorf |first2=Christoph |last2=Stadel |title=The Andes: A Geographical Portrait |date=March 12, 2015 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=978-3-319-03530-7 |page=7}}</ref> It is also the second highest mountain in both the [[Western Hemisphere]] and the [[Southern Hemisphere]] behind [[Aconcagua]] at 6,960.8 meters (22,837&nbsp;ft) and it is the highest in Chile.

Due to its location near the [[Atacama Desert]], the mountain has very dry conditions, with snow usually remaining on the peak only during winter, though heavy storms can cover the surrounding area with a few feet of snow even in summer. Despite the generally dry conditions, there is a permanent [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] about {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} in diameter at an elevation of {{convert|6390|m|abbr=on}} on the eastern side of the mountain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andes.org.uk/peak-info-6000/ojos-del-salado-info.asp|title=Andes Website – Information about Ojos del Salado volcano, a high mountain in South America and the World's highest volcano<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> This is most likely the [[Lake#Notable lakes on Earth|highest lake]] of any kind in the world.

The ascent of Ojos del Salado is mostly a hike until the final section to the summit, which is a difficult scramble that may require ropes. The first ascent was made in 1937 by [[Jan Alfred Szczepański]] and Justyn Wojsznis, members of a [[Poland|Polish]] expedition in the Andes.

An international highway between Chile and Argentina runs north of the mountain.<ref>Carter 1957, p.242</ref>

== Name ==

The name "{{lang|es|Ojos del Salado}}" refers to a river that the 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain,{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}} although the river Salado does not originate on Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} and the name was already known before.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}} Another theory posits that the volcano was named after mineral deposits on its flanks.{{sfn|Bobylyova|2016|p=125}} There are two summits, known as the eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be reached.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|pp=7-8}}

== Geography and geomorphology ==

Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} and rises from the southern end of the [[Puna de Atacama]],{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} a [[high plateau]] next to the [[Atacama Desert]] with an average elevation of {{convert|4000|m}} metres.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} The border between [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] runs across the summit of the mountain in east-west direction.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} The Argentine part is within [[Catamarca Province]]{{sfn|González|Würschmidt|2008|p=48}} and the Chilean in [[Copiapo Province]].{{sfn|Informacíon turística|2021}} The [[highway]] {{ill|Chile Route 31|es|Ruta 31-CH}} between the city of [[Copiapo]] west of the volcano and the [[Paso San Francisco]]{{efn|Paso San Francisco one of the most important crossings of the Andes{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=6}} with over 8,100 people crossing in 2018.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=16}}}} to Argentina{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} is about {{convert|20|km}} north of the volcano, making it more accessible than many other volcanoes there.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} The region is uninhabited and lacks water resources; many parts are only accessible through [[dirt road]]s.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=67}}

Ojos del Salado is a [[dormant volcano]] that rises to {{convert|6893|m}},{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} {{convert|6879|m}}{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} or {{convert|6887|m}} elevation.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} It is the world's highest volcano{{efn|Relative to sea level; relative to base level [[Mauna Loa]] is considerably higher.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=12}}}} and the second-highest summit of the Andes,{{sfn|BAKER|GONZALEZ-FERRAN|REX|1987|p=85}} and the highest summit in Chile.{{sfn|Butelski|2020|p=1}} Ojos del Salado is not a single conical summit but a massif{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=63}}/[[complex volcano]]{{sfn|OSE|2021}} formed by overlapping smaller volcanoes.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=167}} Two less than {{convert|2.5|km}} wide edifices flank the {{convert|1.3|x|0.5|km}} wide [[summit crater]] on its eastern and western side.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} [[Basalt]], [[gravel]], [[pumice]] and [[scoria]] crop out in its rim, which is lower on the northern side.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=90}} Reportedly, the summit is separated by a deep gap into two separate peaks.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=91}} Thick short [[dacitic]] lava flows make up the core {{convert|13|x|12|km}} area of the volcano but [[pyroclastic]] fall material covers much of the summit area.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}

The massif rises about {{convert|2|km}} above the surrounding terrain and covers an oval area of about {{convert|70|km2}}{{sfn|OSE|2021}}-{{convert|160|km2}},{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}} consisting of [[lava dome]]s, [[lava flow]]s,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} [[pyroclastic cone]]s and [[volcanic crater]]s{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} that rise about {{convert|2|km}} above the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=12}} The massif appears to feature a buried [[caldera]],{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} visible through a slope break from the western side,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=434}} and/or a {{convert|2.5|km}} wide depression.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} The occurrence of a rift-like structure with numerous small craters has also been reported.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=436}} Volcanic cones form a north-northeast trending alignment on the western flank.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|pp=168-169}} [[Cerro Solo]] and El Fraile are large lava domes on the flanks of Ojos del Salado,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} and produced [[pyroclastic flow]]s.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=546}}

Wind-driven erosion has produced [[megaripple]] fields on the northern flank. Above {{convert|6000|m}} elevation [[talus]]-covered slopes and [[lava flow]]s form the bulk of the surface, while the vast desert plains begin below {{convert|5000|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=15}} The ground above {{convert|4000|-|5600|m}} elevation is expected to contain [[permafrost]],{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} which is likely continuous at higher elevations{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} and overlaid with a thin [[active layer]].{{sfn|Dobiński|2020|p=6}} [[Cryoturbation]]{{efn|Croyturbation landforms form when [[frost]] triggers deformation of the soil.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=9}}}} landforms were not conspicuous according to Nagy ''et al.'' 2019,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=9}} presumably because wind-driven phenomena overprint the effects of cryoturbation.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=14}}

=== Lakes ===

Ojos del Salado hosts the highest lake in the world{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=21}}{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}}{{efn|Waterbodies found at {{convert|6600|m}} elevation are the highest lakes of the world;{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=93}} if considered lakes they may be the highest lakes in the world.{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=21}}{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}}}} in the form of the [[crater lake]]{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}} in the summit crater.{{sfn|Vincent|2018|p=15}} Fed by permafrost and snowfields, it lies at {{convert|6480|m}}-{{convert|6500|m}} elevation. It is surrounded by fumaroles and covers an area of {{convert|6000|m2}}. Waters in a creek flowing into this lake reach temperatures of {{convert|40.8|C}},{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=604-605}}{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}}

There are two lakes at {{convert|5900|m}} elevation on the northeastern slope, {{circa}} {{convert|4|km}} away from the higher lake. Each has an area of {{convert|2500|m2}} and an estimated depth of {{convert|1|m}}.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=604-605}}{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=742}} Ephemeral lakes{{efn|An early report of such lakes goes back to 1937.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=75}}}} occur at {{convert|5900|-|6000|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} when meltwater from permafrost accumulates in closed depressions.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=603-604}} Some of the lakes may be permanently frozen.{{sfn|Jacobsen|Dangles|2017|p=41}} Lakes might disappear with [[climate change]] owing to the breakdown of permafrost.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|pp=603-604}}

=== Surroundings ===

The landscape is dominated by volcanoes,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} many of [[Pleistocene]] or [[Holocene]] age,{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=4}} and is the highest volcanic region in the world.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=539}} Travellers have compared the region to a "moonscape".{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} There are [[hot spring]]s in the region,{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} such as the Termas Laguna Verde at the shores of [[Laguna Verde]] which are frequented by visitors.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=9}}

The volcano lies in the middle of an over {{convert|80|km}} long east-west trending chain of volcanoes{{sfn|OSE|2021}} that form a [[drainage divide]] and includes the volcanoes [[Nevado Tres Cruces]], [[Incahuasi]]{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=471}} and [[Cerro Blanco (volcano)|Cerro Blanco]]. This chain of volcanoes appears to be part of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura tectonic [[lineament]],{{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|p=6761}} which corresponds to a geographic (southern boundary of the [[Puna]]){{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|p=6761}} and tectonic discontinuity in the region.{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=474}} The lineament is a consequence of the subduction of the [[Copiapo Ridge]] at this latitude.{{sfn|Gimenez|Acosta|Alvarez|Pesce|2019|p=474}} An alternative view is that the subducting Copiapo Ridge is actually located north of the lineament; this would be more consistent with the theory that the subduction of such ridges gives rise to gaps in the volcanic chain.{{sfn|Le Roux|Achurra|Henríquez|Carreño|2016|p=46}}

Numerous other mountains rise to {{convert|6000|m}} elevation around Ojos del Salado. Among these are clockwise from north are the {{convert|6488|m}} or {{convert|6420|m}} high [[Cerro El Muerto]]{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=335}}{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}}{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=541}} northeast of Ojos del Salado,{{efn|According to the [[Global Volcanism Program]], El Muerto volcano is a part of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Synonyms & Subfeatures}} Another peak "del Muerto" is located north-northeast of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}}}{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=167}} {{convert|5970|m}} high El Muertito,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=435}} Medusa, {{convert|6120|m}} high Viento, {{convert|6658|m}} high [[Cazadero]]/[[Tipas]] and Sin Nombre,{{efn|Tipas and the other volcanoes are poorly known dacitic volcanoes.{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=5}}}} {{convert|5753|m}} high El Plateado and {{convert|6067|m}} high Cerro Vicunas.{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=5}}{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}}{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=335}}{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}}{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=541}} Farther away are {{convert|6119|m}} high [[Cerro Barrancas Blancas]] north-northwest,{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} {{convert|6748|m}} high [[Nevado Tres Cruces]] west of the volcano and [[Cerro Solo]] between Ojos del Salado and Nevado Tres Cruces, {{convert|6052|m}} high [[Cerro Copiapo]] west-southwest, {{convert|6493|m}} high [[Cerro Nacimiento]] southeast, {{convert|6615|m}} high [[Incahuasi]] and {{convert|6259|m}} high Nevado El Fraile east and {{convert|5904|m}} high [[Cerro Mulas Muertas]] north-northeast of Ojos del Salado. Waterbodies in the region include [[Laguna Verde]] northeast, [[Salar de Maricunga]] west-northwest and [[Laguna del Negro Francisco]] southwest of Ojos del Salado,{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}}{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=56}} and another Laguna Verde valley lies south of the volcano.{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=321}}

== Ice and glaciers ==

Except for [[firn]] and small [[glacier]]s in sheltered parts of the mountain, Ojos del Salado lacks a substantial ice cover. This is due to the [[arid climate]] of the region, which causes the [[equilibrium line altitude]] of ice to rise above the top of the mountain{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=3}} and keeps most peaks in the area ice-free.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} Glacier areas shown on maps are often actually immobile [[firn]] fields.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=69}} The ice reaches thicknesses of only {{convert|10|-|15|m}} and areal extents of a few hundred metres. [[Meltwater]] feeds streams.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=454}}

Climbing parties in 1956 reported two glaciers on the northwestern slope,{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=89}} a 1958 report indicated that an ice body at {{convert|6600|m}} elevation descends into two branches and is followed at lower elevation by another glacier also with two branches - but in neither case with any evidence of movement -,{{sfn|Lliboutry|González|Simken|1958|p=298}} and in 2014 there was ice in the summit crater{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=70}} and substantial glaciers on the eastern and southern slopes, which reached elevations below {{convert|6000|m}}.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=69}} There have been increases in ice area between 1974 and 1983{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=94}} but between 1986 and 2000, ice area decreased by 40%.{{sfn|Buchroithner|2010|p=35}} The melting of the ice is expected to produce an increased discharge at first, but eventually ice diminishes to the point that runoff will decline.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=461}}

[[Penitentes]] have been encountered by climbers as early as 1937,{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=75}} in 1949 there were reportedly {{convert|5|-|8|m}} high penitentes on Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Lliboutry|1954|p=334}} Penitentes are high ice spires{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=71}} which form when ice [[sublimates]] in the intense insolation.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=69}}

=== Subsurface ice ===

Ice buried beneath sand{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=98}} and rocks and ice encased in [[moraine]]s is more important, it is also retreating but the insulating effect of the cover slows the retreat.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=455}} Erosional [[gullies]] and so-called "infilled valleys"{{efn|Several metres wide valleys that are filled with erosion debris.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=726}}}} have been observed; they most likely form when buried ice and snow melt.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=736}} The combined effect of erosion by the meltwater and the disappearance of ice volume creates cavities that collapse and form the valleys and pseudokarst landforms.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=455}} [[Pseudokarst]] landforms and [[doline]]s are other structures generated by the melting of buried ice.{{sfn|Veress|2016|p=465}}

=== Past glaciation ===

[[Lateral moraine]]s altered by wind erosion occur north of Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=14}} and some lava flows bear traces of glaciation.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}} However, there is no evidence of [[Pleistocene]] glacier advances in the region{{sfn|Núñez|Grosjean|1994|p=16}}{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Graf|Schotterer|1992|p=265}}{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Bonani|Bürgi|1993|p=124}} nor any indication of a Pleistocene [[snowline]],{{sfn|Hastenrath|1971|p=263}}{{sfn|Haselton|Hilley|Strecker|2002|p=221}} although [[cirque]]s have been reported from Nevado Tres Cruces.{{sfn|Haselton|Hilley|Strecker|2002|p=221}} The [[monsoon]] reached farther south during the Pleistocene but did not reach Ojos del Salado, allowing the development of glaciers only at more northern latitudes.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Graf|Schotterer|1992|p=265}} Westerly winds did not regularly influence the climate at the volcano, either.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Bonani|Bürgi|1993|pp=124,127}}

== Geology ==

In South America, there are about 200 volcanoes with evidence of eruptions during the [[Pleistocene]] and [[Holocene]]{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}} along the western coast, where the [[Nazca Plate]] and [[Antarctic Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]] in the [[Peru-Chile Trench]]. Volcanic activity is localized in four major volcanic belts, the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] (CVZ), [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] and the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]]; these are separated by belts without volcanic activity.{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=140}} Where volcanic activity occurs, the subduction process releases fluids from the downgoing [[slab]] which trigger the formation of melts in the [[mantle]] that eventually ascend to the surface and give rise to volcanism.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}}{{efn|Zentilli 1974 considered the volcano linked to the so-called "[[Easter Island|Easter]] Hot Line" of volcanoes{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=425}} but they do not have a common magma.{{sfn|BAKER|GONZALEZ-FERRAN|REX|1987|p=95}}}} Ojos del Salado is part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]].{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}}

The CVZ spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and contains about 1,100 recognized volcanoes, many of which are extremely old and are still recognizable owing to the low erosion rates in the region.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}} Apart from [[stratovolcano]]es, the CVZ includes numerous [[caldera]]s, isolated [[lava dome]]s and [[lava flow]]s, [[maar]]s and [[pyroclastic cone]]s. Most of the volcanoes are remote and thus constitute a low hazard.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=148}} Ojos del Salado is part of the CVZ and constitutes its southern boundary.{{efn|Other [[Pliocene]]-recent volcanoes such as [[Cerro Bonete]]{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=141}} and [[Incapillo]] occur south of Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Mahlburg Kay|Mpodozis|2002|p=49}} but volcanoes there are more isolated and farther inland than these north of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Bonatti|Harrison|Fisher|Honnorez|1977|p=2474}}}} South of the volcano{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|p=140}} volcanism ceased during the last six million years{{sfn|Mahlburg Kay|Mpodozis|2002|p=48}} and until 32° south, [[subduction]] takes place at a shallow angle and volcanism is absent in the "Pampean flat-slab". The shallow angle may be a consequence of the subduction of submarine topography, such as the [[Copiapo Ridge]] at the northern and of the Juan Fernández Ridge at the southern margin of the gap.{{sfn|Álvarez|Giménez|Folguera|Spagnotto|2014|p=2}}{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=147}}

=== Local ===

The basement in the region crops out in the Cordillera Claudio Gay area, and consists of [[sedimentary rock]]s of [[Devonian]]-[[Carboniferous]] age. The rocks are intruded by and covered by [[granite]]s and [[rhyolite]]s associated with [[Permian]] volcanic rocks and the [[Choiyoi Group]]. [[Oligocene]] to recent volcanic rocks and volcano-sedimentary formations cover this basement.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=539}} The topography at Ojos del Salado bears evidence of what may have been past magmatic uplift.{{sfn|Perkins|Finnegan|Henderson|Rittenour|2016|p=1078}} [[Seismic tomography]] has yielded evidence of a low [[seismic velocity]] anomaly underneath the volcano that may constitute the pathway through which water emanating from the downgoing [[slab]] rises through the [[mantle]] and gives rise to melting.{{sfn|Chen|Kufner|Yuan|Heit|2020|p=15}}

Volcanism in the region commenced 26 million years ago, when the [[Farallon Plate]] broke up and [[subduction]] speed increased. Initially between 26 and 11 million years ago activity was concentrated in the Maricunga region {{convert|60|km}} west of the Ojos del Salado region, where only small-volume volcanism took place and which constituted the [[back-arc]] to the Maricunga [[volcanic arc|arc]]. Between 8-5 million years ago activity declined in the Maricunga region and increased in the Ojos del Salado region, until Maricunga volcanism ceased 4 million years ago. This shift coincided with a gradual flattening of the subduction process since the [[Miocene]] and was accompanied by change in [[crust]]al and [[mantle]] properties that are reflected in the [[isotope ratio]]s of erupted volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=539,547}} During the [[Quaternary]], volcanism formed the edifices of [[Cerro Solo]], El Fraile, [[Incahuasi]], [[El Muerto]], El Muertito, [[Falso Azufre]], [[Nevado San Francisco]], [[Nevado Tres Cruces]] and Ojos del Salado, which together cover over half of the area.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} Apart from the large volcanoes, many smaller [[mafic]] [[monogenetic volcano]]es developed in the area, especially east of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Grosse|Ochi Ramacciotti|Escalante Fochi|Guzmán|2020|p=2}} [[Pleistocene]] volcanism was limited to the Ojos del Salado area, where recent [[fault]]ing offset volcanic rocks.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=440}} The large dimensions of Ojos del Salado indicate that magmatism was focused here.{{sfn|Geological Society of America|1991|pp=151-152}}

=== Composition ===

Volcanic rocks erupted by Ojos del Salado form a [[calc-alkaline]]{{sfn|BAKER|GONZALEZ-FERRAN|REX|1987|p=90}} [[potassium]]-rich suite of [[dacitic]] rocks,{{sfn|OSE|2021}} with occasional [[andesite]] and [[rhyodacite]].{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429-428}} Earlier in the geological history of the region more [[mafic]] magmas also erupted. The rocks contain [[phenocryst]]s like [[augite]], [[biotite]], [[hornblende]], [[hypersthene]], opaque minerals, [[plagioclase]], [[pyroxene]] and [[quartz]].{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}}{{sfn|OSE|2021}} Magma mixing phenomena produced [[olivine]] and [[pyroxene]] [[xenocryst]]s and [[amphibole]] reaction rims.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=546}}

== Climate ==

Detailed climate data do not exist for the area.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} The [[Puna de Atacama]] has an extreme climate with strong wind, high elevation, a dry climate{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=4}} and high [[insolation]];{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} the area is just south of the [[Arid Diagonal]].{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}}

Temperatures at lower elevations can exceed {{convert|10|C}} but mean annual temperatures only reach {{convert|-10|C}}.{{sfn|Kereszturi|2018|p=1}} Mean winds at Laguna Verde reach maximum speeds of {{convert|8|-|10|m}} in winter, on the mountaintops they can exceed {{convert|10|m/s}} and can impede climbing attempts. Winds blow strongest in the afternoon.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} The winds produce [[aeolian landform]]s such as [[dune]]s, [[gravel]] pavements, [[abrasion|abraded]] rocks and [[megaripple]]s at lower elevations,{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|pp=9-10}} and redeposit snow.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}}

Annual precipitation consists mostly of [[hail]] and snow.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=67}} It either amounts to less than {{convert|150|mm}} per year{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} or reaches {{convert|300|-|500|mm}} per year. Compared to sites farther north falls primarily during winter{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} although snowfall is common in summer.{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} Precipitation probably peaks at {{convert|5500|m}} where the [[cloud base]] lies.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=62}} Snow cover in the area is sporadic{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=7}} and quickly [[sublimate]]s,{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} which hinders its measurement;{{sfn|Nagy|Mari|Kovács|Nemerkényi|2014|p=453}} the average snow cover is less than {{convert|5|cm}} thick.{{sfn|Nagy|Ignéczi|Kovács|Szalai|2019|p=10}} The dry climate prevents the development of substantial [[glacier]]s in the region; only farther south at Tronquitos does more extensive glaciation begin{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=61}} although temporary ice and snow accumulations can be mistaken for glaciers.{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|pp=62-63}}

== Vegetation and fauna ==

Due to the dry climate, the region is a [[desert]] with no vegetation occurring above {{convert|4600|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=603}} However, [[lichen]]s and [[moss]]es have been found at higher elevations{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=252}} and green growths have been reported from the summit region.{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=248}} {{As of|2007}}, there were no reports of plants in the waterbodies on Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Seimon|Halloy|Seimon|2007|p=341}} Salt, acid and cold-tolerant [[bacteria]] have been recovered from sediments in the lakes on Ojos del Salado, consistent with microorganism samples from similar dry volcanic environments.{{sfn|Aszalós|Krett|Anda|Márialigeti|2016|p=612}}

A diverse flora and fauna has been described in the lower elevation regions south-southeast of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|González|Würschmidt|2008|p=59}} Birds such as [[duck]]s, [[flamingo]]s and [[geese]] and mammals such as [[guanaco]]s and [[vicuña]]s occur in the Santa Rosa-Maricunga-Negro Francisco region.{{sfn|Informacíon turística|2021}} [[Chinchilla]]s and vicunas live in the valleys south of Ojos del Salado, and have drawn humans to the region.{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=325}} [[Earwig]]s have been observed at {{convert|5960|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Halloy|1983|p=104}}

West of the volcano lies the [[Nevado Tres Cruces National Park]]{{sfn|Gspurning|Lazar|Sulzer|2006|p=60}} and in 1991/1994 there were plans to make a national park on the Argentine side as well.{{sfn|Messerli|Grosjean|Vuille|1997|p=236}} {{As of|2020}}, the establishment of a "zone of touristic interest" encompassing Ojos del Salado was under discussion in Chile.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2020}}

== Eruption history ==

Volcanic activity probably commenced 3.3-1.5 million years ago{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} or during the late [[Pleistocene]].{{sfn|OSE|2021}} The 3.7±0.2 million years old Las Lozas [[Andesite]] may have been a precursor of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=545}} The oldest rocks of Ojos del Salado are 3.5-3.4 million years old dacites in the lower parts of the volcano.{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}} A [[somma volcano]] structure may have formed during an eruption that generated the [[pumice]] deposits on the lower slopes of the volcano, and there are potential [[air fall]] deposits north of it. Ojos del Salado may{{sfn|OSE|2021}} or may not have produced [[pyroclastic flow]]s; the neighbouring [[Nevado Tres Cruces]] {{circa}} 67,000 years ago produced extensive deposits around Ojos del Salado and in the valley between the two volcanoes; these were originally interpreted to have originated at Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Gardeweg|Clavero|Mpodozis|Pérez de A.|2000|p=293}}{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}} Cerro Solo, whose emplacement was probably accompanied by intense [[pyroclastic flow]] activity that cover the lower parts of the volcano,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|p=435}} and lava domes in the summit region are of [[Pleistocene]] age.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} The long-term growth rate of Ojos del Salado amounts to {{convert|0.03|-|0.04|km3/ka|mi3/ka}}.{{sfn|Grosse|Orihashi|Guzmán|Sumino|2018|p=20}}

[[Radiometric dating]] has yielded ages of 1.53 ± 0.13,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=168}} 1.2 ± 0.3 million and less than one million years ago for rocks in the northwestern part of Ojos del Salado,{{sfn|Mpodozis|Kay|Gardeweg|Coira|1996|p=542}} 1.08 ± 0.09 million years for flows underlying the summit,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} 1.08 ± 0.04 million years for the northern flank of Ojos del Salado, 700,000±50,000 for its western flank, 450,000±60,000 for El Muerto,{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429-428}} 340,000 ± 190,000 years for the summit rocks,{{sfn|Kay|Coira|Mpodozis|2008|p=169}} and 230,000±40,000 years for El Fraile.{{sfn|Gonzalez-Ferran|Baker|Rex|1985|pp=429-428}} Lava flows and a lava dome on the northern flank have yielded ages of 100,000 ± 17,000 and 35,000 years, respectively.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}}{{sfn|Gardeweg|Clavero|Mpodozis|Pérez de A.|2000|p=292}}

=== Holocene and historical activity ===

A [[rhyodacitic]] eruption{{sfn|OSE|2021}} was dated with [[tephrochronology]] to have occurred 750 ± 250 [[CE]].{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Eruptive History}} The volcano produced [[lava flow]]s during the [[Holocene]],{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}} which cover an area of {{convert|120|km2}}, as well as pumice deposits at Laguna Verde and elongated fractures in the summit region.{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Photo Gallery}} Many volcanic rocks have a fresh appearance but there is no clear evidence of recent activity.{{sfn|Moreno|Gibbons|2007|p=154}}

There are no confirmed historical eruptions{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=General Information}}{{efn|Historical eruptions may have been missed, however, due to the remote location of the volcano.{{sfn|Siebert|Simkin|Kimberly|2019|p=11}}}} and the volcano is presently inactive.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} In November 1993, observers witnessed ash and steam columns on two separate days{{sfn|GVP|2021|loc=Latest Activity Reports}} but no deformation of the volcano was observed by satellites during this occasion.{{sfn|Pritchard|Simons|2004|p=10}} An ash cloud observed on the June 13, 2015, and which led to a warnings about volcanic ash to aircraft turned out to be wind-blown [[volcanic ash]] in the [[Fiambala]] valley.{{sfn|Mingari|Collini|Folch|Báez|2017|pp=6759-6760}}

=== Hazards ===

There is no information on volcanic hazards at Ojos del Salado{{sfn|OSE|2021}} and volcanic hazards in the [[Central Volcanic Zone]] are poorly reconnoitered,{{sfn|Bertin|Baez|Caffe|Elissondo|2018|p=15}} but a 2018 presentation at the [[University of Auckland]] ranked it 14th of 38 Argentine volcanoes{{sfn|Bertin|Baez|Caffe|Elissondo|2018|p=4}} and the presence of ice on the mountain makes it a potential source for [[lahar]]s.{{sfn|Seynova|Chernomorets|Dokukin|Petrakov|2017|p=106}}

=== Fumarolic activity ===

There are [[fumarole]]s that emit sulfurous smokes.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} Polish climbers in 1937 first observed this activity, {{convert|650|ft|m|order=flip}} below the summit,{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} which appears to be linked to a [[rift]] structure on the volcano.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} Climbers in 1957 reported that the fumaroles were noisy and the emissions intense enough that with unfavourable winds they could suffocate people.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=89}} The fumaroles can be observed from [[satellite]]s in the form of temperature anomalies which reach {{convert|4|K-change}},{{sfn|Jay|Welch|Pritchard|Mares|2013|p=164}} but the steam plumes are poorly visible from the ground except from close distance.{{sfn|Jay|Welch|Pritchard|Mares|2013|p=169}} The occurrence of [[geyser]]s in the summit region has been reported.{{sfn|Halloy|1991|p=248}}

== Human history ==

As Ojos del Salado is hidden behind{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}} and nested among many peaks of similar elevation, it did not get much attention from travellers and mountaineers.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}} Its remoteness meant that for a long time, both its elevation and exact topography were unclear.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=66}} The positions and names of the mountains were frequently confused.{{sfn|Roig|1955|p=334}}{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}}

The [[Inka]] used the [[Paso San Francisco]] as a major crossing of the Andes{{sfn|Rundel|Kleier|2014|p=3}} but there is no evidence of them building any [[archeological site]]s on Ojos del Salado{{efn|
The explorer [[Johan Reinhard]] was referenced in a 2002 publication to have found an [[Inca]] [[archeological site]] on Ojos del Salado{{sfn|Ratto|Plá|Orgaz|2002|p=276}} but the archaeologist [[Nicholas J. Saunders]] reported an absence of [[ruin]]s on the mountain in 1992{{sfn|Saunders|1992|p=170}} and Johan Reinhard likewise mentioned that there were no ruins on Ojos del Salado in that year.{{sfn|Reinhard|1992|p=170}}}}{{sfn|Reinhard|1992|p=170}} even though a number of such sites exist in the surrounding region.{{sfn|Subsecretaría de Turismo|2019|p=6}} The [[Spanish]] [[conquistador]] [[Diego de Almagro]]{{sfn|Erdmann|1963|p=18}} crossed the Andes at Ojos del Salado but did not mention it.{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}}{{efn|The large losses of animals and men during the crossing may have been the inspiration for the many death-themed mountain names in the region.{{sfn|Rundel|Kleier|2014|p=3}}}} Ojos del Salado is likewise absent from the 1861 plans of [[William Wheelwright]] for a railway across [[Paso San Francisco]].{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=71}} The explorer [[Walter Penck]] crossed the area in 1912/13 and 1913/14{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=53}} but did not identify the mountain.{{sfn|Kaufmann|1998|p=54}}

=== Ascents and debate on elevation ===

In 1896, 1897 and 1903 the Chile-Argentina boundary commission identified a peak in the area and named it "Ojos del Salado";{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}} according to a myth{{sfn|Echevarría|1999|p=167}} their "Ojos del Salado" was a much smaller mountain and the actual Ojos del Salado was their "peak 'e'".{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=74-75}} The [[Polish]] climbers Justin Wojsznis, Stefan Osiecki, Witold Paryski, [[Jan Alfred Szczepański|Jan Szczepański]]{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=72}} reached the summit on February 26, 1937{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}} and left a [[cairn]]{{efn|Later Austrian climbers found out that the cairn was not located on the exact summit of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=241}}}}{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=88}} but most of the maps and report they drafted were lost during [[World War II]].{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=72}}

After the Polish expedition, the mountain remained unclimbed, although expeditions went to its lower slopes and sometimes confused other peaks for Ojos del Salado, until 1955. In that year an expedition from [[Tucumán]]{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=76}} a mountain south of Ojos del Salado, which they mistook for the volcano. They stated that the peak may be higher than Aconcagua, which media reported as if it were proven fact.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=77}} These measurements set off a debate whether Ojos del Salado was higher than [[Aconcagua]] and thus the highest summit of the [[Western Hemisphere]],{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=74}} and drew attention to the mountain. Three separate Chilean, Argentine and Austrian parties went to Ojos del Salado in 1956; the Chilean party measured an elevation of {{convert|7084|m}} with a [[barometer]], a value that was once again presented as proven by the press{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=77}} despite the unreliability of this technique.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=78}} The Chilean party also claimed seeing the Argentine [[pampa]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] from the summit.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=90}} In 1957, the official elevation of Ojos del Salado was {{convert|6870|m}} according to Argentina and {{convert|6880|m}} according to Chile.{{sfn|Carter|1957b|p=240}}

The debate on the elevation and confusion about which mountain was Ojos del Salado and who climbed which peak prompted an expedition by the [[American Alpine Club]] in 1956.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=78}} The expedition was hindered by bad weather conditions{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=83}} and a gust of wind stretching a measurement line may have almost frustrated the goal to determine the summit elevation of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Carter|1957|p=85}} The same party later used [[geodetic]] methods to establish the elevation of Ojos del Salado as {{convert|6885.5|±|3|m}} and lower than [[Aconcagua]].{{sfn|Carter|1957|pp=93,96}} In 1989, Francesco Santon of the [[University of Padua]] in Italy and with Argentine assistance, used [[GPS]]-based positioning to determine an elevation of {{convert|6900|±|5|m}}.{{sfn|Secor|Kukathas|Thomas|1999|p=23}}

== Mountaineering and tourism ==

Ojos del Salado and the surrounding mountains draws fewer mountaineers than [[Aconcagua]], with only several hundred climbers every year. Since the 1990s commercial tours have become important drivers of ascents. The mountain can be ascended from both the Argentine and the Chilean side, but owing to the better logistics most ascents occur from the Chilean side.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=74}} The high elevation, cold and windy weather and impassable terrain are common challenges for would-be climbers.{{sfn|Ministerio de Cultura y Turismo|2021}}

A dirt road departing from the {{ill|Chile Route 31|es|Ruta 31-CH}} highway to [[Paso San Francisco]] heads south to Ojos del Salado, past Refugio Murray to the [[bivouac]] Refugio Universidad de Atacama/Jorge Rojas at {{convert|5200|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=68}} from there a path goes to Refugio Tejos at {{convert|5825|m}} elevation and eventually to the summit of Ojos del Salado.{{sfn|Nüsser|Dame|2015|p=75}}

== Astronomy ==

[[Astronomers]] have reconnoitered the volcano for the possibility of creating an [[observatory]] there.{{sfn|OSE|2021}} The [[landform]]s such as the gullies{{sfn|Kereszturi|2020|p=736}} and crater lakes and their conditions,{{sfn|Aszalós|Szabó|Felföldi|Jurecska|2020|p=752}} and climatic conditions around Ojos del Salado have led researchers to investigate it as a potential analogue to environments on [[Mars]].{{sfn|Kereszturi|2018|p=1}}

==See also==
* [[Cerro El Muerto]]
* [[Cerro Solo]]
* [[Incapillo]]
* [[Incahuasi]]
* [[Laguna Verde (lake of Chile)|Laguna Verde]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Argentina]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Chile]]
* [[Lists of volcanoes]]
* [[Llullaillaco]]
*[[Monte Pissis]]
* [[Nevado Tres Cruces]]
* [[Tipas]]
* [[Volcanic Seven Summits]]

== Notes ==

{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last1=Biggar |first1=John |title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers |date=2005 |publisher=Andes |isbn=978-0-9536087-2-0 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radehose |first1=Eckehard |title=Traumberge Amerikas: von Alaska bis Feuerland |date=2002 |publisher=Bergverlag Rother GmbH |isbn=978-3-7633-3006-5 |language=de}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ojos del Salado}}
* {{cite thesis|ref=none|language=de|title=Erstellung der Alpenvereinskarte „Nevado Ojos del Salado“|last=Fleischer|first=K.|url=https://tu-dresden.de/bu/umwelt/geo/ifk/studium/abschlussarbeiten?fis_type=abschlussarbeit&fis_id=292|year=2004}}
* [http://www.andeshandbook.org/montanismo/cerro/8/Ojos_del_Salado Complete description of Ojos del Salado in Andeshandbook]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap061202.html 1 December 2006 Star Trails at 19,000 Feet] - NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day
* [http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-information-files/6000m-peaks.asp Andes information]
*[http://www.andes-specialists.com/andean-mountains-5000/ Ojos del Salado Satellite Elevation Data]
* [http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8569 Peak bagger]
* [http://www.summitpost.org/show/mountain_link.pl/mountain_id/126 Summit post]
* [http://www.peaklist.org/WWsurveys/SA/ojos.html Peak list]
* [https://www.4dvt.com/ojos-del-salado-chile-argentina.html Virtual Aerial Video]

{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Seven Second Summits}}
{{Volcanic Seven Summits}}

<!--Note that Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile is a subcat of Category:Mountains of Chile -->

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Chile]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Argentina]]
[[Category:Seven Second Summits]]
[[Category:Volcanic Seven Summits]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Volcanic crater lakes]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Atacama Region]]
[[Category:Mountains of Atacama Region]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Catamarca Province]]
[[Category:Mountains of Catamarca Province]]
[[Category:Atacama Desert]]
[[Category:Argentina–Chile border]]
[[Category:International mountains of South America]]
[[Category:Highest points of countries]]
[[Category:Six-thousanders of the Andes]]

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