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==Morphology==
==Morphology==
''Crocus sativus'' has a [[corm]], which holds leaves, [[bracts]], bracteole, and the flowering stalk.<ref name="Kafi">{{cite book|editor1-last=Kafi|editor1-first=M.|editor2-last=Koocheki|editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Rashed|editor3-first=M. H. |editor4-last=Nassiri|editor4-first=M.|year=2006|title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'') Production and Processing|edition=1st|publisher=Science Publishers|isbn=978-1-57808-427-2<!--157808427X-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kO8prjfiiCEC|ref={{Sfnref|Kafi et al.|2006}}}}</ref> These are protected by the corm underground. ''C. sativus'' generally blooms with purple flowers in the autumn. The plant grows about 10 to 30&nbsp;cm high.<ref name="Razi's">Mollazadeh, Hamid "Razi's Al-Hawi and saffron (Crocus sativus): a review". Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, Dec 2015.</ref> ''C. sativus'' is a triploid with 24 chromosomes, which means it has three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This makes the plant sterile due to its inability to pair chromosomes during meiosis.<ref name="Saxena">{{citation |last=Saxena |first=R. |title=Botany, taxonomy and cytology of ''Crocus sativus'' series |journal=AYU |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=374–81 |year=2010 |doi=10.4103/0974-8520.77153 |pmc=3221075 |pmid=22131743}}</ref>
''Crocus sativus'' has a [[corm]], which holds leaves, [[bracts]], bracteole, and the flowering stalk.<ref name="Kafi">{{cite book|editor1-last=Kafi|editor1-first=M.|editor2-last=Koocheki|editor2-first=A. |editor3-last=Rashed|editor3-first=M. H. |editor4-last=Nassiri|editor4-first=M.|year=2006|title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'') Production and Processing|edition=1st|publisher=Science Publishers|isbn=978-1-57808-427-2<!--157808427X-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kO8prjfiiCEC|ref={{Sfnref|Kafi et al.|2006}}}}</ref> These are protected by the corm underground. ''C. sativus'' generally blooms with purple flowers in the autumn. The plant grows about 10 to 30&nbsp;cm high.<ref name="Razi's">Mollazadeh, Hamid "Razi's Al-Hawi and saffron (Crocus sativus): a review". Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, Dec 2015.</ref> ''C. sativus'' is a triploid with 24 chromosomes (2n = 3x = 24), which means it has three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This makes the plant sterile due to its inability to pair chromosomes during meiosis.<ref name="Saxena">{{citation |last=Saxena |first=R. |title=Botany, taxonomy and cytology of ''Crocus sativus'' series |journal=AYU |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=374–81 |year=2010 |doi=10.4103/0974-8520.77153 |pmc=3221075 |pmid=22131743}}</ref>
[[File:Crocus sativus plant with corm.png|thumb|Plant growing from a developed corm.]]
[[File:Crocus sativus plant with corm.png|thumb|Plant growing from a developed corm.]]


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==Use==
==Use==
[[Saffron]] is considered to be the most valuable [[saffron#spice|spice]] by weight.<ref name="Kafi" /> Depending on the size of harvested stigmas, 50,000–75,000 ''Crocus sativus'' plants are needed to produce about 1 pound of saffron;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hill|first1=T|title=The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen|year=2004|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-21423-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryency0000hill/page/273 273]|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryency0000hill/page/273}}</ref> each flower only produces three stigmas. Stigmas should be harvested mid-morning when the flowers are fully opened.<ref name="SafFarm" /> The saffron crocus (''Crocus sativus'') should not be confused with "meadow" saffron or autumn crocus (''[[Colchicum autumnale]]'') which is poisonous.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/4190/Colchicum-autumnale/Details |title = Colchicum autumnale &#124; meadow saffron/RHS Gardening}}</ref>
[[Saffron]] is considered to be the most valuable [[saffron#spice|spice]] by weight.<ref name="Kafi" /> Depending on the size of harvested stigmas, 50,000–75,000 ''Crocus sativus'' plants are needed to produce about 1 pound of saffron;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hill|first1=T|title=The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen|year=2004|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-21423-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryency0000hill/page/273 273]|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryency0000hill/page/273}}</ref> each flower only produces three stigmas. Stigmas should be harvested mid-morning when the flowers are fully opened.<ref name="SafFarm" /> The saffron crocus (''Crocus sativus'') should not be confused with "meadow" saffron or autumn crocus (''[[Colchicum autumnale]]'') which is poisonous.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/4190/Colchicum-autumnale/Details |title = Colchicum autumnale &#124; meadow saffron/RHS Gardening}}</ref>

== Breeding ==
As ''C. sativus'' is infertile, all cultured individuals of this plant in this world essentially have the same ancestry. There is minimal genetic diversity among them, making it quite hard to find once with new, potentially beneficial properties, let alone combine them by breeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alsayied |first1=NF |last2=Fernández |first2=JA |last3=Schwarzacher |first3=T |last4=Heslop-Harrison |first4=JS |title=Diversity and relationships of Crocus sativus and its relatives analysed by inter-retroelement amplified polymorphism (IRAP). |journal=Annals of botany |date=September 2015 |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=359-68 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcv103 |pmid=26138822 |pmc=4549961}}</ref> Cultivars of saffron are nevertheless produced by:<ref name=Shokrpour>{{cite book |last1=Shokrpour |first1=Majid |chapter=Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Breeding: Opportunities and Challenges |title=Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Industrial and Food Crops |date=2019 |pages=675–706 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23265-8_17}}</ref>

* Clonal selection. Any plant with a desirable mutation is kept and further grown. This is the traditional approach.
* [[Mutation breeding]]. Mutagenesis can be used to cause a wide range of mutations to select from. The traditional clonal process follows.
* Sexual reproduction. Breeding for desirable features is much easier in fertile plants.
** Although the plant is not self-fertile, some of its wild relatives can be successfully cross-pollinated with its pollen ''in vitro'' and form seeds. This would create a fertile diploid plant with the features of ''C. sativus'' to work from.<ref name=Shokrpour/>
** A chromosome doubling would also create a fertile plant, albeit a hexaploid. Such a change may be possible via [[colchicine]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Aqayef |first1=Yusof |last2=Fathi |first2=Mohammad |last3=Shakib |first3=Ali Mohammad |title=Investigation of possibility of obtaining hexaploid saffron forms through treatment of plants by colchicine. |date=2007 |url=https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=IR2008000154 |publisher=Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran |language=Farsi}}</ref>


==Gallery==
==Gallery==

Revision as of 08:33, 27 April 2022

Saffron crocus
A single shell-shaped violet flower is in sharp centre focus amidst a blurred daytime and overcast garden backdrop of soil, leaves, and leaf litter. Four narrow spine-like green leaves flank the stem of the blossom before curving outward. From the base of the flower emerge two crooked and brilliant crimson rod-like projections pointing down sideways. They are very thin and half the length of the blossom.
Flowers showing crimson stigmas
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Iridaceae
Genus: Crocus
Species:
C. sativus
Binomial name
Crocus sativus
Synonyms[1]
  • Crocus autumnalis Sm. nom. illeg.
  • Crocus officinalis (L.) Honck.
  • Crocus orsinii Parl.
  • Crocus pendulus Stokes
  • Crocus setifolius Stokes
  • Geanthus autumnalis Raf.
  • Safran officinarum Medik.

Crocus sativus, commonly known as saffron crocus, or autumn crocus,[2] is a species of flowering plant of the Crocus genus in the iris family Iridaceae. It is best known for producing the spice saffron from the filaments that grow inside the flower. The term "autumn crocus" is also used for species in the Colchicum genus, which strongly resemble crocuses. However, crocuses have three stamens and three styles, while colchicums have six stamens and one style, and belong to a different family, Colchicaceae. Colchicums are also toxic.[3]

This cormous autumn-flowering perennial plant species is unknown in the wild.[2] Human cultivation of saffron crocus and use of saffron have taken place for more than 3,500 years and spans different cultures, continents, and civilizations (see History of saffron). Crocus sativus is currently known to grow in the Mediterranean, East Asia, and Irano-Turanian Region.[4] Saffron is the triploid form of a species found in Eastern Greece, Crocus cartwrightianus;[5][6] it probably appeared first in Southern Greece on the Attic peninsula[7] or the island of Crete. An origin in Western or Central Asia, although often suspected, is not supported by botanical research.[8] Other sources suggested some genetic input from Crocus pallasii,[9] which has not been verified by chromosome[5] and genome[7] comparisons.

Morphology

Crocus sativus has a corm, which holds leaves, bracts, bracteole, and the flowering stalk.[4] These are protected by the corm underground. C. sativus generally blooms with purple flowers in the autumn. The plant grows about 10 to 30 cm high.[10] C. sativus is a triploid with 24 chromosomes (2n = 3x = 24), which means it has three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This makes the plant sterile due to its inability to pair chromosomes during meiosis.[11]

Plant growing from a developed corm.

Cultivation

Crocus sativus is unknown in the wild, and its ancestor is unknown. The species Crocus cartwrightianus is the most probable ancestor,[12][9] but C. thomassi and C. pallasii are still being considered as potential predecessors.[13] Manual vegetative multiplication is necessary to produce offspring for this species as the plant itself is a triploid that is self-incompatible and male sterile, therefore rendering it incapable of sexual reproduction. This inability to reproduce on its own supports the hypothesis that C. sativus is a mutant descending from C. carthwrightianus as a result of selective breeding.

Corms of Crocus sativus should be planted 10 cm (4 in) apart and in a trough 10 cm (4 in) deep. The flower grows best in areas of full sun in well-drained soil with moderate levels of organic content.[14] The corms will multiply after each year, and will last 3–5 years.[15]

Use

Saffron is considered to be the most valuable spice by weight.[4] Depending on the size of harvested stigmas, 50,000–75,000 Crocus sativus plants are needed to produce about 1 pound of saffron;[16] each flower only produces three stigmas. Stigmas should be harvested mid-morning when the flowers are fully opened.[15] The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) should not be confused with "meadow" saffron or autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) which is poisonous.[17]

Breeding

As C. sativus is infertile, all cultured individuals of this plant in this world essentially have the same ancestry. There is minimal genetic diversity among them, making it quite hard to find once with new, potentially beneficial properties, let alone combine them by breeding.[18] Cultivars of saffron are nevertheless produced by:[19]

  • Clonal selection. Any plant with a desirable mutation is kept and further grown. This is the traditional approach.
  • Mutation breeding. Mutagenesis can be used to cause a wide range of mutations to select from. The traditional clonal process follows.
  • Sexual reproduction. Breeding for desirable features is much easier in fertile plants.
    • Although the plant is not self-fertile, some of its wild relatives can be successfully cross-pollinated with its pollen in vitro and form seeds. This would create a fertile diploid plant with the features of C. sativus to work from.[19]
    • A chromosome doubling would also create a fertile plant, albeit a hexaploid. Such a change may be possible via colchicine.[20]

Gallery

See also

Topics related to saffron:

References

  1. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 23 April 2015.
  2. ^ a b "Crocus sativus". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
  3. ^ Bowles, E. A. (1952). A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum for Gardeners. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. p. 154.
  4. ^ a b c Kafi, M.; Koocheki, A.; Rashed, M. H.; Nassiri, M., eds. (2006). Saffron (Crocus sativus) Production and Processing (1st ed.). Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-57808-427-2.
  5. ^ a b Schmidt, Thomas; Heitkam, Tony; Liedtke, Susan; Schubert, Veit; Menzel, Gerhard (2019). "Adding color to a century-old enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (Crocus sativus) as a hybrid of wild Crocus cartwrightianus cytotypes". New Phytologist. 222 (4): 1965–1980. doi:10.1111/nph.15715. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 30690735.
  6. ^ Nemati, Zahra; Blattner, Frank R.; Kerndorff, Helmut; Erol, Osman; Harpke, Dörte (1 October 2018). "Phylogeny of the saffron-crocus species group, Crocus series Crocus (Iridaceae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 127: 891–897. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.036. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 29936028.
  7. ^ a b Blattner, Frank R.; Kerndorff, Helmut; Gemicioglu, Almila; Harpke, Doerte; Nemati, Zahra (1 February 2019). "Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus". bioRxiv: 537688. doi:10.1101/537688.
  8. ^ Mathew, B. (1977). "Crocus sativus and its allies (Iridaceae)". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 128 (1–2): 89–103. doi:10.1007/BF00985174. JSTOR 23642209. S2CID 7577712.
  9. ^ a b Harpke, Dörte; Meng, Shuchun; Rutten, Twan; Kerndorff, Helmut; Blattner, Frank R. (2013). "Phylogeny of Crocus (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 66 (3): 617–627. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007. PMID 23123733.
  10. ^ Mollazadeh, Hamid "Razi's Al-Hawi and saffron (Crocus sativus): a review". Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, Dec 2015.
  11. ^ Saxena, R. (2010), "Botany, taxonomy and cytology of Crocus sativus series", AYU, 31 (3): 374–81, doi:10.4103/0974-8520.77153, PMC 3221075, PMID 22131743{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Rubio-Moraga, A; Castillo-Lopez, R; Gomez-Gomez, L; Ahrazem, O (23 September 2009). "Saffron is a Monomorphic Species as Revealed by RAPD, ISSR and Microsatellite Analyses". BMC Research Notes. 2 (189): 189. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-2-189. PMC 2758891. PMID 19772674.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Grilli Caiola, M. (2003). "Saffron Reproductive Biology". Acta Horticulturae. 650 (650). ISHS: 25–37. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.1. S2CID 89990377.
  14. ^ "Growing and Harvesting Saffron Crocus". White Flower Farm.
  15. ^ a b "Saffron Farming Information Guide". AgriFarming. 8 August 2015.
  16. ^ Hill, T (2004). The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen (1st ed.). Wiley. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-471-21423-6.
  17. ^ "Colchicum autumnale | meadow saffron/RHS Gardening".
  18. ^ Alsayied, NF; Fernández, JA; Schwarzacher, T; Heslop-Harrison, JS (September 2015). "Diversity and relationships of Crocus sativus and its relatives analysed by inter-retroelement amplified polymorphism (IRAP)". Annals of botany. 116 (3): 359–68. doi:10.1093/aob/mcv103. PMC 4549961. PMID 26138822.
  19. ^ a b Shokrpour, Majid (2019). "Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Breeding: Opportunities and Challenges". Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Industrial and Food Crops. pp. 675–706. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23265-8_17.
  20. ^ Aqayef, Yusof; Fathi, Mohammad; Shakib, Ali Mohammad (2007). Investigation of possibility of obtaining hexaploid saffron forms through treatment of plants by colchicine (Report) (in Farsi). Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute of Iran.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crocus_sativus&oldid=1084909282"