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Corrected and elaborated the taxonomical history, added categories.
Added common names, added info to taxonomy, added ecology section, added more genera
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{{Short description|Group of fungi-like protists}}
{{Short description|Group of fungi-like protists}}
{{Automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Sporosori.jpg
⚫
| display_parents=6
| image_caption = ''[[Spongospora]]'', or [[powdery scab]]
⚫
| display_parents=5
| taxon = Plasmodiophoridae
| taxon = Plasmodiophoridae
| authority = Zopf, 1884
| authority = Zopf, 1884
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* Plasmodiophoraceae {{au|Zopf ex Berl., 1888}}
* Plasmodiophoraceae {{au|Zopf ex Berl., 1888}}
* Plasmodiophorales {{au|[[Adolf Engler|Engl.]], 1892}}
* Plasmodiophorales {{au|[[Adolf Engler|Engl.]], 1892}}
* Plasmodiophoromycetes {{au|[[Adolf Engler|Engl.]], 1892}}
* Plasmodiophoromycetes
* Plasmodiophoromycota {{au|[[Whittaker]], 1969}}
* Plasmodiophoromycota {{au|[[Whittaker]], 1969}}
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
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* ''[[Spongospora]]''
* ''[[Spongospora]]''
* ''[[Tetramyxa]]''
* ''[[Tetramyxa]]''
* others ([[#Classification|see text]])
}}
}}
The '''plasmodiophores'''<ref name="Whittaker69"/> are a group of [[obligate]] [[endoparasitic]] [[protists]] belonging to the subphylum [[Endomyxa]] in [[Cercozoa]].<ref name="MonoCercozoa"/> Taxonomically, they are united under a single family '''Plasmodiophoridae''', order '''Plasmodiophorida'''.<ref name="RhizariaPhylo2018"/>
The '''plasmodiophores'''<ref name="Whittaker69"/> (also known as '''plasmophorids'''<ref name="Plasmobrassicaegenome"/> or '''plasmodiophorids'''<ref name="Cross-kingdom host shifts"/>) are a group of [[obligate]] [[endoparasitic]] [[protists]] belonging to the subphylum [[Endomyxa]] in [[Cercozoa]].<ref name="MonoCercozoa"/> Taxonomically, they are united under a single family '''Plasmodiophoridae''', order '''Plasmodiophorida'''.<ref name="RhizariaPhylo2018"/>
==Ecology==

Plasmodiophores are pathogenic for a wide range of organisms, but mainly [[green plants]]. The more commonly recognized are agents of plant diseases such as [[clubroot]], [[powdery scab]] and [[crook root of watercress]],<ref name="PlasmodiophoromycotaChapter"/> or vectors for [[viruses]] that infect [[beets]], [[peanut]], [[monocots]] and [[potatoes]], such as the [[potato mop-top virus]].<ref name="Top10Phytoprotists"/><ref name="MarinePlasmophoReview"/>
==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
===History===
===History===
Traditionally, the plasmodiophores have been regarded as [[fungi]]. The first description of plasmodiophores as a taxonomic group was in 1885 by [[Friedrich_Wilhelm_Zopf|Zopf]], who united two genera ''[[Plasmodiophora]]'' and ''[[Tetramyxa]]'' in a common family “Plasmodiophoreæ”, inside the group “Monadineæ”, as part of the division [[Mycetozoa|Myxomycetes]]. The family was renamed “Plasmodiophoraceae” in 1888 by [[Augusto Napoleone Berlese|Berlese]].<ref name="SyllogeFungorum1"/> In 1892, [[Adolf Engler|Engler]] placed the family in its own class “Plasmodiophorales”, later renamed “Plasmodiophoromycetes” to fit [[ICBN|nomenclature standards]].<ref name=Engler1903/>
The plasmodiophores have historically been regarded as [[Fungi]]. The first description of plasmodiophores as a taxonomic group was in 1885 by [[Friedrich_Wilhelm_Zopf|Zopf]], who united two genera ''[[Plasmodiophora]]'' and ''[[Tetramyxa]]'' in a common family “Plasmodiophoreæ”, inside the group “Monadineæ”, as part of the division [[Mycetozoa|Myxomycetes]]. The family was renamed “Plasmodiophoraceae” in 1888 by [[Augusto Napoleone Berlese|Berlese]].<ref name="SyllogeFungorum1"/> In 1892, [[Adolf Engler|Engler]] placed the family in its own class “Plasmodiophorales”, later renamed “Plasmodiophoromycetes” to fit [[ICBN|nomenclature standards]].<ref name=Engler1903/>


In 1969 [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]], in his [[Kingdom_(biology)#Five_kingdoms|five-kingdom system]], elevated the group to a separate phylum “Plasmodiophoromycota”, acknowledging them as [[protists]] instead of fungi.<ref name="Whittaker69"/>
In 1969 [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]], in his [[Kingdom_(biology)#Five_kingdoms|five-kingdom system]], elevated the group to a separate phylum “Plasmodiophoromycota”, acknowledging them as [[protists]] instead of fungi.<ref name="Whittaker69"/>


In 1993 [[Cavalier-Smith]] included the plasmodiophores in their current class, [[Phytomyxea]], as part of a [[polyphyletic]] phylum called Opalozoa, which at the time contained a diverse assemblage of unrelated zooflagellates, as well as [[Opalinidae|opalines]] and [[Proteomyxia|proteomyxids]].<ref name="Opalozoa"/> Eventually this phylum was discarded, and the name [[Opalozoa]] was modified to label a group inside the phylum [[Bigyra]] containing the [[Opalinata|opalines]], [[bicosoecids]] and related organisms.<ref name="Incisomonas"/>
In 1993 [[Cavalier-Smith]] included the plasmodiophores and their sister group [[Phagomyxida]] in their current class, [[Phytomyxea]], as part of a [[polyphyletic]] phylum called Opalozoa, which at the time contained a diverse assemblage of unrelated zooflagellates, [[Opalinidae|opalines]] and [[Proteomyxia|proteomyxids]].<ref name="Opalozoa"/> Eventually this phylum was discarded, and the name [[Opalozoa]] was modified to label a group inside the phylum [[Bigyra]] containing the [[Opalinata|opalines]], [[bicosoecids]] and related organisms.<ref name="Incisomonas"/>


Finally, the plasmodiophores, like the rest of [[Phytomyxea]], were placed in [[Endomyxa]], in the phylum [[Cercozoa]], through phylogenetic analyses.<ref name="PhyloCercozoa2003"/>
Finally, after [[phylogeny|phylogenetic]] analyses, in 2002 [[Cavalier-Smith]] placed all [[Phytomyxea]], including plasmodiophores, in the subphylum [[Endomyxa]], inside the [[Rhizaria|rhizarian]] phylum [[Cercozoa]].<ref name="PhagoCavalier2002"/><ref name="PhyloCercozoa2003"/>
===Classification===
===Classification===
Currently there are three accepted genera inside the group:<ref>{{Cite WoRMS|title=Plasmodiophoridae|id=889997|access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref>
Currently there are three accepted genera inside the group according to the [[World Register of Marine Species]].<ref>{{Cite WoRMS|title=Plasmodiophoridae|id=889997|access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref>
*Order '''Plasmodiophorida''' {{au|Cook, 1928}} [='''Plasmodiophorales''' {{au|[[Adolf Engler|Engl.]], 1892}}]
*''[[Plasmodiophora]]'' {{au|Woronin, 1877}} [=''[[Ostenfeldiella]]'' {{au|Ferdinandsen & Winge, 1914}}]
⚫
*''[[Spongospora]]'' {{au|Brunch., 1887}}
**Family '''Plasmodiophoridae''' {{au|Zopf, 1884}} [='''Plasmodiophoraceae''' {{au|Zopf ex Berl., 1888}}]
***''[[Plasmodiophora]]'' {{au|Woronin, 1877}} [=''Ostenfeldiella'' {{au|Ferdinandsen & Winge, 1914}}]
*''[[Tetramyxa]]'' {{au|K.I. Goebel, 1884}} [=''[[Molliardia]]'' {{au|Maire & A. Tison, 1911}}]
The following genera are not included in the register but appear in other databases:<ref name=MycoBank>{{cite journal|title=Plasmodiophoraceae|journal=www.mycobank.org|url=https://www.mycobank.org/page/Name%20details%20page/name/Plasmodiophoraceae}}</ref>
⚫
***''[[Spongospora]]'' {{au|Brunch., 1887}}
***''[[Tetramyxa]]'' {{au|K.I. Goebel, 1884}} [=''Molliardia'' {{au|Maire & A. Tison, 1911}}]
*''[[Clathrosorus]]'' {{au|Ferd. & Winge, 1920}}
*''[[Cystospora]]'' {{au|J.E. Elliott, 1916}}

*''[[Frankiella]]'' {{au|Maire & A. Tison, 1909}}
*''[[Ligniera]]'' {{au|Maire & A. Tison, 1911}} [=''[[Anisomyxa]]'' {{au|Nemec, 1913}}; ''[[Rhizomyxa]]'' {{au|Borzí, 1884}}]
*''[[Membranosorus]]'' {{au|Ostenf. & H.E. Petersen, 1930}}
*''[[Octomyxa]]'' {{au|Couch, J. Leitn. & Whiffen, 1939}}
*''[[Peltomyces]]'' {{au|L. Léger, 1909}}
*''[[Polymyxa]]'' {{au|Ledingham, 1933}}
*''[[Sorodiscus]]'' {{au|Lagerh. & Winge, 1912}}
*''[[Sorolpidium]]'' {{au|Nemec, 1911}}
*''[[Sorosphaera]]'' {{au|J. Schröt., 1886}}
*''[[Sporomyxa]]'' {{au|L. Léger, 1907}}
*''[[Woronina]]'' {{au|Cornu, 1872}}
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=
Line 53: Line 68:


<ref name="PhyloCercozoa2003">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cavalier-Smith E, Chao EE|title=Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)|journal=Protist|volume=154|issue=3–4|date=2003|pages=341-358|issn=1434-4610|doi=10.1078/143446103322454112|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1434461004701467}}</ref>
<ref name="PhyloCercozoa2003">{{cite journal|vauthors=Cavalier-Smith E, Chao EE|title=Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)|journal=Protist|volume=154|issue=3–4|date=2003|pages=341-358|issn=1434-4610|doi=10.1078/143446103322454112|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1434461004701467}}</ref>

<ref name="Cross-kingdom host shifts">{{cite journal|vauthors=Neuhauser S, Kirchmair M, Bulman S, etal.|title=Cross-kingdom host shifts of phytomyxid parasites|journal=BMC Evol Biol|volume=14|number=33|date=23 February 2014|pmid=24559266|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-14-33|pmc=4016497|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="Plasmobrassicaegenome">{{cite journal|vauthors=Stjelja S, Fogelqvist J, Tellgren-Roth C, etal.|title=The architecture of the Plasmodiophora brassicae nuclear and mitochondrial genomes|journal=Sci Rep|volume=9|number=15753|date=2019|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-52274-7|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="MarinePlasmophoReview">{{cite journal|last1=Neuhauser|first1=Sigrid|last2=Kirchmair|first2=Martin|last3=Gleason|first3=Frank H.|date=28 April 2011|title=Ecological roles of the parasitic phytomyxids (plasmodiophorids) in marine ecosystems – a review|journal=Marine and Freshwater Research|volume=62|pages=365-371|doi=10.1071/MF10282|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="PhagoCavalier2002">{{cite journal|doi=10.1099/00207713-52-2-297|journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|date=1 March 2002|volume=52|issue=2|pages=297–354|vauthors=Cavalier-Smith T|doi-access=free|title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa}}</ref>

<ref name="PlasmodiophoromycotaChapter">{{cite book|title=The Mycota|volume=VII: Systematics and Evolution Part A|chapter=Plasmodiophoromycota|author=Braselton JP|veditors=McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-10376-0_4|isbn=978-3-662-10376-0|publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg}}</ref>

<ref name="Top10Phytoprotists">{{cite journal|vauthors=Schwelm A, Badstöber J, Bulman S, Desoignies N, Etemadi M, Falloon RE, ((Gachon CMM)), Legreve A, Lukeš J, Merz U, Nenarokova A, Strittmatter M, Sullivan BK, Neuhauser S|title=Not in your usual Top 10: protists that infect plants and algae|journal=Mol Plant Pathol|date=April 2018|volume=19|issue=4|pages=1029-1044|doi=10.1111/mpp.12580|pmid=29024322|pmc=5772912}}</ref>


}}
}}

Revision as of 17:10, 19 October 2022

Plasmodiophore
Spongospora, or powdery scab
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Rhizaria
Phylum: Endomyxa
Class: Phytomyxea
Order: Plasmodiophorida
Cook, 1928
Family: Plasmodiophoridae
Zopf, 1884
Genera
Synonyms
  • Plasmodiophoraceae Zopf ex Berl., 1888
  • Plasmodiophorales Engl., 1892
  • Plasmodiophoromycetes
  • Plasmodiophoromycota Whittaker, 1969

The plasmodiophores[1] (also known as plasmophorids[2] or plasmodiophorids[3]) are a group of obligate endoparasitic protists belonging to the subphylum Endomyxa in Cercozoa.[4] Taxonomically, they are united under a single family Plasmodiophoridae, order Plasmodiophorida.[5]

Ecology

Plasmodiophores are pathogenic for a wide range of organisms, but mainly green plants. The more commonly recognized are agents of plant diseases such as clubroot, powdery scab and crook root of watercress,[6] or vectors for viruses that infect beets, peanut, monocots and potatoes, such as the potato mop-top virus.[7][8]

Taxonomy

History

The plasmodiophores have historically been regarded as Fungi. The first description of plasmodiophores as a taxonomic group was in 1885 by Zopf, who united two genera Plasmodiophora and Tetramyxa in a common family “Plasmodiophoreæ”, inside the group “Monadineæ”, as part of the division Myxomycetes. The family was renamed “Plasmodiophoraceae” in 1888 by Berlese.[9] In 1892, Engler placed the family in its own class “Plasmodiophorales”, later renamed “Plasmodiophoromycetes” to fit nomenclature standards.[10]

In 1969 Whittaker, in his five-kingdom system, elevated the group to a separate phylum “Plasmodiophoromycota”, acknowledging them as protists instead of fungi.[1]

In 1993 Cavalier-Smith included the plasmodiophores and their sister group Phagomyxida in their current class, Phytomyxea, as part of a polyphyletic phylum called Opalozoa, which at the time contained a diverse assemblage of unrelated zooflagellates, opalines and proteomyxids.[11] Eventually this phylum was discarded, and the name Opalozoa was modified to label a group inside the phylum Bigyra containing the opalines, bicosoecids and related organisms.[12]

Finally, after phylogenetic analyses, in 2002 Cavalier-Smith placed all Phytomyxea, including plasmodiophores, in the subphylum Endomyxa, inside the rhizarian phylum Cercozoa.[13][14]

Classification

Currently there are three accepted genera inside the group according to the World Register of Marine Species.[15]

The following genera are not included in the register but appear in other databases:[16]

References

  1. ^ a b Whittaker RH (10 January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–60. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
  2. ^ Stjelja S, Fogelqvist J, Tellgren-Roth C, et al. (2019). "The architecture of the Plasmodiophora brassicae nuclear and mitochondrial genomes". Sci Rep. 9 (15753). doi:10.1038/s41598-019-52274-7.
  3. ^ Neuhauser S, Kirchmair M, Bulman S, et al. (23 February 2014). "Cross-kingdom host shifts of phytomyxid parasites". BMC Evol Biol. 14 (33). doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-33. PMC 4016497. PMID 24559266.
  4. ^ Irwin, Nicholas A.T.; Tikhonenkov, Denis V.; Hehenberger, Elisabeth; Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Burki, Fabien; Keeling, Patrick J. (2019-01-01). "Phylogenomics supports the monophyly of the Cercozoa". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 130: 416–423. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2018.09.004. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 30318266. S2CID 52982396.
  5. ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Chao, Ema E.; Lewis, Rhodri (April 2018). "Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria". Protoplasma. 255: 1517–1574. doi:10.1007/s00709-018-1241-1. PMC 6133090. PMID 29666938.
  6. ^ Braselton JP. "Plasmodiophoromycota". In McLaughlin DJ, McLaughlin EG, Lemke PA (eds.). The Mycota. Vol. VII: Systematics and Evolution Part A. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10376-0_4. ISBN 978-3-662-10376-0.
  7. ^ Schwelm A, Badstöber J, Bulman S, Desoignies N, Etemadi M, Falloon RE, Gachon CMM, Legreve A, Lukeš J, Merz U, Nenarokova A, Strittmatter M, Sullivan BK, Neuhauser S (April 2018). "Not in your usual Top 10: protists that infect plants and algae". Mol Plant Pathol. 19 (4): 1029–1044. doi:10.1111/mpp.12580. PMC 5772912. PMID 29024322.
  8. ^ Neuhauser, Sigrid; Kirchmair, Martin; Gleason, Frank H. (28 April 2011). "Ecological roles of the parasitic phytomyxids (plasmodiophorids) in marine ecosystems – a review". Marine and Freshwater Research. 62: 365–371. doi:10.1071/MF10282.
  9. ^ Saccardo PA, Traverso GB, Trotter A (1882). Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum. Vol. 1. p. 323. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5371. LCCN agr12002244. OCLC 2472326.
  10. ^ Engler A (1903). Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien : eine Übersicht über das gesamte Pflanzensystem mit Berücksichtigung der Medicinal- und Nutzpflanzen nebst einer Übersicht über die Florenreiche und Florengebiete der Erde zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen und Studien über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik (3rd ed.). Berlin: Borntraeger. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.22956.
  11. ^ Cavalier-Smith T (September 1993). "The Protozoan Phylum Opalozoa". Eukaryotic Microbiology. 40 (5): 609–615. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1993.tb06117.x.
  12. ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Scoble, Josephine Margaret (2012). "Phylogeny of Heterokonta: Incisomonas marina, a uniciliate gliding opalozoan related to Solenicola (Nanomonadea), and evidence that Actinophryida evolved from raphidophytes". European Journal of Protistology. 49: 328–353. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2012.09.002.
  13. ^ Cavalier-Smith T (1 March 2002). "The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (2): 297–354. doi:10.1099/00207713-52-2-297.
  14. ^ Cavalier-Smith E, Chao EE (2003). "Phylogeny and Classification of Phylum Cercozoa (Protozoa)". Protist. 154 (3–4): 341–358. doi:10.1078/143446103322454112. ISSN 1434-4610.
  15. ^ "Plasmodiophoridae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
  16. ^ "Plasmodiophoraceae". www.mycobank.org.
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